PRSA APR Cheat Sheet Latest (2024 / 2025) (Verified by Expert)

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PRSA APR Cheat Sheet
1.PRSA Values
: HE FAIL
Honesty
Expertise
Fairness
Advocacy
Independen
ce Loyalty
2.Four Step Planning Process
: RPIE
Research: Define the PR problem, situation
analysis Planning: Strategy
Implementation: Take action &
communicate Evaluation: Assessment

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3.Problem Statement
: 5 Ws and H
1.What is the source of concern?
2.Where is this a concern?
3.When is this a concern?
4.Who is involved or affected?
5.How are they involved or affected?
6.What is the impact to the organization and its publics?

Audience
: 1. Who needs to know?
2.Who needs to be involved?
3.Who is affected or has something to gain/lose?
4.Whose support do we need?
5.Objective
: Who does what for whom by how much and when?
Must be SMART, outcome/behavior-focused
6.10-Step PR Plan
: 1. Goal
2.Audience
3.Objective
4.Strategy
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PRSA Values
HE FAIL

Honesty

Expertise

Fairness

Advocacy

Independence

Loyalty

Four Step Planning Process
RPIE

Research: Define the PR problem, situation analysis

Planning: 10-Step PR Planning Process

Implementation: Take action & communicate

Evaluation: Assessment

Problem Statement
5 Ws and H – 25 words or less “What exactly is it that we want them to do as a result of this campaign?”

Reflect the findings from research.

Who is involved or affected?
What is the source of concern?
What is the impact to the organization and its publics?
When is this a concern?
Where is this a concern?
How are they involved or affected?

Four Questions that Define an Audience & Primary vs. Secondary

KIAA

Who needs to know?
Who needs to be involved?
Who is affected or has something to gain/lose?
Whose (advice) or support do we need?

Primary (key): That you specifically want to influence.

Secondary: “intervening.” These are people who can intervene on your behalf and influence the primary audience.

What is an Objective? SMART acronym?
“Who does What for Whom by How Much and When?”

KEY: (ONE) Audience + Outcome + Attainment Level (%) + Time Frame.

Objectives are based on research and align with the business. They are a guide to actions. Each OBJ is for ONE Public ID’d after GOALS. Short-term.

Articulate with verbs: recognize, favor, accept, endorse, support, oppose, band, buy, discard, etc.

Must be SMART, outcome/behavior-focused

Specific

Measureable

Attaintable

Realistic

Timely

10-Step PR Plan
RESEARCH FIRST: Situational Analysis, Research, Problem Statement

PLANNING

Goal
Audience

Repeat for each public #2

Objective
Strategy
Tactics
Activities
Evaluation

Summary Documents

Materials
Budget
Timeline

Ethical Principles (Step 5 in Ethical Process)
CC-Feds

Competition

Conflict of Interest

Free Flow of Information

Enhancing the Profession

Disclosure of Information

Safeguarding Confidences

Act in the public interest

Use honesty and integrity as your guide

Avoid conflict of interest; real, perceived, potential

Ensure truth and accuracy

Free flow of information
Do not disseminate false or misleading information
If you make a mistake, correct with all publics

Deal fairly with all publics

Ethical Process
IF VA then PD

Identify ethical issue or concern
Identify internal/external factors
Identify key values
Identify who will be affected and PR professional’s relationship to each
Identify ethical principles
Make your decision and justify it

Porter’s 5 Forces (power and weakness)

Supplier power
Buyer power
Competitive rivalry
Threat of new entrant
Threat of substitution

Managing Relationships: 3 Pillars of Reputation

economic
social
deliver outcomes to stakeholders

Managing Relationships: 7 Dimensions of Corporate Reputation/Brand
P.I.P. Come Work Let’s Go

Product
Innovation
Performance
Citizenship
Workplace
Leadership
Governance

Diffusion of Innovation Theory (Personalities & Adopt the Innovation)
Five Personalities (IEEAA) + PR Outcome

*innovators (knowledge)

*early adopters (awareness)

*early majority (awareness)

*late majority (behavior)

*laggards (behavior)

PR Outcomes: Knowledge, awareness, opinion, behavior

Adoption Process (AI’s ETA)
Diffusion of Innovation Theory

AI’s ETA

A long process to introduce a new idea or practice.

Adoption Stage—> PR Objective —> Best source of influence

Awareness –> Knowledge change–> Media
Interest/Persuasion –> Attitude change –> Media/people
Evaluation/Decision–> Attitude change –> Media/people
Trial/Implementation –> Behavior change –> People/family/friend
Adoption –> Behavior change –> People/family/friend

4 Models of PR
James Gruning’s “Excellence Theory”

1) Press Agentry/Publicity: persuasion & manipulation to influence.

2) Public Information (asymmetrical). Press releases & one-way communication techniques.

3) Two-Way Asymmetric – Research conducted showed that the public had a concern, but the information was not used to modify the organization’s goals, policies or actions. Instead, it guided your communication approach.

4) Two-Way Symmetric: ongoing research and information collected from an audience may influence what an organization does. The goal is mutual benefit.

Organizations are more effective when:

PR is a critical management function
PR is an integrated communication function, separate from marketing
Two-way symmetrical model
Diversity

Sherman/Clayton; Robinson/Putnam Antitrust

8K: 4 days “material” changes to organization. (Issuing PR release, the filing press release on Form 8k appropriate for fair disclosure, significant problems like litigation or executive malfeasance).
10K: 60 days (annual report including MD&A, SWOT, financial footnotes, labor contracts, non-compete agreement)
10Q: 45 days “unaudited” quarterly report. Due 35 days after close of first three quarters.
1934 Section Form Def 14A proxy statement announcing shareholders meeting. (Issues include assignment of board members, executive salaries, compensation, bonus & options plans, dividend pay)
1933 5c “gag”: 90-day embargo on publicity material from date security is registered until effective
1934 – disclosure. Material available to the public.
1934 10-b5: truth and accuracy in all publicity materials including speeches, press releases, etc. Fraud in disclosure.
1963 SEC: insider trading, material information (news that could influence a decision to buy or sell stock)
Reg FD (Fair Disclosure): disclose financial information to all shareholders at the same time. 2000
Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) verify accounting controls are in place

*Anti-Trust – engaging in activity that ruins competition illegal.

4 Defenses Against Libel

Truth
Fair comment
Privilege
Retraction

6 Standards of Proof of Libel (EPR p. 142)
Proof libel DID PuFF

Defamation (hatred, contempt, ridicule)
Identification
Damages
Publication
Fault
Falsity

9 Steps to Restore Trust
To restore trust READ A C4

Candor (verbal acknowledgment a problem exists)
Apologize
Explanation
Affirmation (learned from the situation & how it will influence your future behavior)
Declaration (positive steps you will take to resolve the issue)
Contrition (continued verbalization of candor: regret, empathy, sympathy)
Consultation (ask for help and counsel from victims)
Commitment (set goals at zero problems)
Restitution (quickly pay the price)

Five steps must be affected in the first “golden hour” of a crisis.

Response priorities aka The Grand Strategy.

Problem identification & prioritization: deal with the underlying problem first.
Manage the victim dimension: aka victim dynamics
Employee communication: most important audience.
Communicate with those indirectly affected: inform them.
Deal with self-appointed, self-anointed, and the media: media brings attention to your crisis

Crisis Communications Planning Process (Readiness)
NOTE: Team assembled when there IS a crisis

“How READY are we to deal with the most serious problem we expect to face?”

Identify what can go wrong or become highly visible
Identify priorities based on vulnerabilities most likely to occur and develop scenarios for each
Develop Q&A for each scenario
Determine what to say/do in the first critical hour
Develop a strategy to contain and counteract vs. respond and react

Active Crisis Steps (Immediate Crisis)
Activate the team so regular comms can return to normal then adjust to recover. ARRAR

Activate the crisis communications team including the official spokesperson
Establish a regular cadence of communications
Return to normal operations of the organization
Adjust strategies and policies as needed
Recovery — strategies and organizational changes

What is public relations?
Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends.

Barcelona Principles

Goal setting and measurement are fundamental to communication and PR.
Measure outcomes > outputs.
Measure organizational performance where possible.
Measurement and evaluation require both qualitative and quantitative methods
Advertising Value Equivalents (AVEs) do not measure the value of communications/PR.
Measure social media can and should be measured consistently with other media channels
Measurement and evaluation should be transparent, consistent, and valid

Examples of Non-Profits, For-Profits, Not-for-Profits
Non-Profits: Hospitals, radio stations, most colleges and universities, and charities that don’t do business to make a profit for owners.

For-Profits: publicly traded companies (Apple, GM, Ford, ex). Do business to make money for shareholders or owners.

Not-for-Profits: Credit unions, mutual insurance companies and farm cooperatives that may generate revenue surpluses but not designed to earn money for owners or members.

What are Outcome, Output, and Process Objectives?
“Who does What for Whom by How Much and When?”

Objectives are written as a result. It has four components: The target group, the result

you desire, the amount you hope to achieve, and the time for completion.

*Outcome -Specify changes in awareness, opinions, knowledge, behaviors, or support. MUST INCLUDE: Target public, outcome, measurement, target date. “Behavioral change can only happen when there is an opinion support in favor of the desired behavior.”

*Output – Measure activities (10 press releases). No direct value in measuring effectiveness of a campaign. WORDS: INCREASE, CHANGE

EX: “Create 10M impressions through 200 placements in national print and broadcast outlets that mention study findings by the end of the campaign in June”

*Process – “inform” or “educate” publics

Four Roles of PR Professionals
*Communication Technician: (AC-SAE), Tactically focused. Implement strategies determined by others (conducts media outreach, writes features, research)

*Expert Prescriber: (AM-AD) Sets objectives, plans, budgets, recruits & trains staff members. Environmental scanning.

*Communication Facilitator: Serves as liaison/spokesperson between an organization and its publics. Listener. Manages two-way communications and removes barriers.

*Problem-Solving Process Facilitator: Strategic collaborates with larger teams and managers to define and solve problems.

Definition of a “true crisis”
Show-stopping, people-stopping, product-stopping, reputation-defining situations that create victims and/or explosive visibility.

Anything less is a problem.

Five Stages of a Crisis

Detection
Prevention/Preparation
Containment
Recovery
Learning

Examples of a Strategy
HOW you will REACH your OBJECTIVES.

Must have an AUDIENCE defined in STRATEGY. Establish partnerships, engage, test effectiveness, generate feedback, demonstrate, collaborate. “is”

Social media
Media relations
Public engagement
Employee engagement
Third-party endorsement
Interactions with opinion leaders.

Types of Survey Samples
Census – 100% sample. X<300

Probability Samples – Being chosen is equal or random

Nonprobability Samples – an informal selection.

*Convenience: intercept surveys

*Quota: “10 of each audience”

*Dimensional: “matches the dimensions”

*Snowball: a few people know similar others. successive waves of questioning

*Purposive: ID a sample that suits your purpose

Public Opinion Process: Public Types
Constraint Recognition of Situation Sets. Publics can be grouped into four types:

All-issue: active on all issues (NONPUBLICS)

Apathetic: inattentive & inactive on all issues (LATENT)

Single-issue: active on a limited # of issues (AWARE)

Hot-issue: active after widespread media coverage (ACTIVE)

Public Opinion Process: Eight Steps
AKA: Lang and Lang’s Collective Dynamics

1) Existing mass opinion

2) Issue

3) Creates a public

4) Public debate

5) Time

6) Public opinion

7) Social action

8) Mass sentiment

Environmental Scanning
Monitoring organization’s internal and external environments for detecting “future” early signs of opportunities and threats that may influence its current and future plans.

EX: Monitoring Facebook and meeting with parent groups to discuss COVID.

“Info about events and relationships in a company’s outside environment, knowledge here assists top management in charting future course of action.”

Formative & Descriptive Research
Formative – Gathering information to use before or program or making adjustments in a plan during implementation. “Make wise decisions.” Helps with planning the PR plan. Preliminary Work. Analyze: Situation, Organization, Publics.

Descriptive – Collecting information that describes existing conditions, the status quo of individuals, or group opinions and behaviors. Used to test a theory or hypothesis.

Omnibus Survey or Study is also called what?
“Subscription studies.”

Centralized vs. Decentralized Decision Making
Centralized: “top-down” pyramid. Decisions are consistent. Facilitate coordination.

Decentralized decision making distributes decision making across organizational units. Accountability and ownership.

Commonly Used Financial Statements
Balance Sheet: “still photograph.” Shows assets, liabilities and capital (equity) on a specific date.

Income (P/L) Statement: “financial video.” Profitability of a business over a specified time. Shows net income.

Statement of Cash Flow: “Financial video.” shows cash in and cash out. Required for public companies. Cash-flow statement shows actual numbers – it does not discuss future likely effects on cash flow.

Line vs. Staff Management
Line: Product-producing and profit-producing functions that increase the bottom line.

Staff: Provide advice and counsel to those in line management positions. (PR is here)

Exchange vs. Communal Relationships
Exchange: strategic and utilitarian. Rely on persuasion.

Communal: based on emotional ties, proximity, and geography. Two-way dialogue and survive disputes.

Benefits of a Communications Audit
Results of a communication audit may be used to improve the content, design, and distribution of publications, or to revamp or discontinue communication vehicles that are not achieving desired results.

Audience Theories (Social)
*Diffusion of Innovation: GOAL: Get early adopters to try and move up the system. Direct % change to get people onboard to get outcome down the road.

*Social Exchange: People WANT to do something, but SOMETHING is standing in the way (money, time, resources).

*Social Judgement: “Rose colored glasses.” People accept or reject messages to the extent that message content corresponds to each individual’s attitudes and believes and influences his or her self-concept.

Attribution theory is to understand or explain circumstances, events or phenomenon, communicators assign (attribute) cause(s) to events.

*Third-Person Effect: Lacks information but sees other sources. Latches onto mainstream news.

*Identification: Reach different audiences by identifying with WHO they are

Wilbur Schramm Model (A to B, B to A)
“Communication is something people do.”

By analyzing and understanding the different frames of reference for each group, the PR professional can minimize communication barriers by finding common ground and building a messaging approach that resonates with both groups.

Issues Management
*ID’s potential or emerging issues that may impact org.

*Designs & deploys a strategic PR response (proactive)

“Steering a boat”

EX: Announced remote learning practice day in anticipation of school shutdown due to COVID.

Benchmarking
A process by which a company compares its performance with that of high-performing organizations. Helps org interacts with its publics.

Types of Formal & Informal Research
Formal (scientific, can be replicated): Surveys (telephone, mail, online/email), content analysis, research databases, fact finding. All secondary research.

EVERYTHING ELSE IS INFORMAL

Informal (subjective & exploratory, pre-test): Focus groups, interviews (intercept, in-depth, phone), communications audit, compliant reviews, tracking calls, observations, advisory panels, community forums, media analysis, historical research

BOTH: Online/email surveys, Internet/social media research

Salience
An individual’s belief that an issue is important or relevant to him or her.

Transmission / Media-Effect Theories

*Agenda Setting: “I saw on the news…” Make coverage makes it seem true (no behavioral change)

*Two-Step Agenda Setting: “I trust Tom Brady because he shares my opinions.” Opinion leaders change opinions.

*Cultivation: Mass media shapes perception. Too much TV is bad, makes it seem true. “Wildfires lighting up the world. Must mean the whole world is on fire.”

*Magic Bullet: Media affects human behavior. “I saw an ad for Smokey Bear, and I will do my part to prevent wildfire.”

Message Theories
*Framing: News reports say ONE thing, someone else calls it a DIFFERENT thing.

9/11 – “War on Terror” vs. “Criminal act.”

*Rhetoric: Using a SPOKESPERSON to get communications out there. “Smokey Bear.”

*Sleeper Effect: People go into “sleeper mode” of not liking something because they have ALWAYS not liked it.

Communication Barriers
*Fuzzy language
*Misalignment of message
*History of distrust
*Distractions
*No credibility
*Unreliable media
*Captive audience
*Gatekeepers

Open & Closed Systems
open systems interact with other systems (closed systems do not interact with other systems).

Closed systems isolate internal units from the external environment. Asymmetrical worldviews reflect atop-down management approach. The organization sets goals and makes decisions without much input from workers. The organization gets what it wants without having to change the way it does business.

Open systems allow interaction between units within an organization as well as input to the organization from external forces. Symmetrical worldviews reflect more bottom-up influences where managers develop a shared vision with workers.

What is a Goal?
BEFORE A GOAL: Situational Analysis, Research, Problem Statement.

*Long-term

*Spells out overall outcomes.

*Broader vision, “future state of being”

*Directly related to the problem

Situational Theory of Publics
People seek information when it is related to decisions that affect their attitudes.
PCL
Level of Involvement

Problem recognition (awareness)
Constraint recognition (can they do anything about it)
Level of involvement (impact on person’s life, connection to issue)

Things you CAN measure in Evaluation Phrase
PR Outcomes

*Knowledge gain

*Opinion change

*Attitude change

*Behavior change

*Repeated behavior

*Goal achieved

*Social and cultural change

3 Types of Communication Crises
*Immediate: Sudden incident. Requires immediate action. Little time for research & planning (EX: School lockdown)

*Emerging: Potential issue that could disrupt operations or affect reputation. Time for research & planning. (EX: School employees concerned about returning to school)

*Sustained: Continued negative news coverage. Often follows immediate crisis. (EX: Threatening social media post by student continues to be reposted)

Coorientation Model
Alleviate misperceptions
Improve understandings

FOUR basic methods to determine PR budgets
1) Overall $$ available.
2) Competitive necessity of the PR function.
3) Specific tasks or goals set for PR function.
4) Excess money after expenses.

Types of Employee Benefits
*Cafeteria Benefit Plans: Plans that allow employees to choose from a list of benefits such as pre-tax deductions.

*Defined Benefit Plans: Plans promise employees specific monthly benefits, known as pension plans.

*Defined-Contribution Plans: Creates individual plans for employees such as the 401(k) or 403(b).

*Pension plan: Provide income after a set amount of service in an organization.

*Roth Retirement Plans: Allow employees to contribute towards their own retirement

after paying income on the money.

Tactics vs. Activities
*Tactics: Specific elements of a strategy or tools.

*Activities: These have dates, indicate who is in charge, and tell what outcome is expected (six meetings, four publications, three blog posts)

7 Corrosive Behaviors Organizations Plan Against
1) Denial
2) Victim Confusion
3) Testosterosis
4) Arrogance
5) Search for the Guilty
6) Fear of the Exposure
7) Management by Whining Around

Important Historical Figures
Seedbed (1900-1916)

Ivy Lee: “Declaration of Principles” Father of PR. Champion of ethics.
Theodore Roosevelt

World War I

George Creel (Creel Committee)
Carl Byoir: Military draft. Led to Registration of Foreign Agents Act of 1938.

Booming Twenties

Edward Bernay’s: First book on PR. Other father of PR, “Crystallizing Public Opinion”
Arthur Page: AT&T VP. Set standard for corporate PR. Performance = repuation.

Roosevelt Era/WWII (1930-1945)

Louis McHenry Howe: advisor to FDR.
Elmer Davis: Director of Office of War Information during WWII. Radio, Hollywood, publicize war effort.
Franklin Roosevelt
Rex Harlow: Founded PRSA (1947)

Protest and Empowerment (1946-1964)

Marshall McLuhan

Four Elements Make Up Public Opinion
1) Opinion: view formed in the mind about an issue.

2) Belief: state or habit, trust & confidence is place in some person or thing.

3) Attitude: mental position, a feeling or emotion.

4) Value: intrinsically valued or desirable.

Excellence Theory
PR performance often linked with an organization’s relationship with publics

Agenda Setting vs. Agenda Building
As a communicator we are putting out an agenda (building) and media is pushing it to the public (setting).

Building

Using new releases, blogs, interview opportunities, etc to news outlets to influence the media agenda.

Setting

Mass media can set the public agenda through repeated news reports about an issue.

Arthur Page’s Corporate Principles

Tell the truth
Prove it with action
Listen to the customer
Manage for tomorrow
Conduct PR as if the whole company depends on it
Realize a company’s true character is expressed by its people
Remain calm, patient and good-humored

Situational Analysis
*An assessment of a firm’s internal and external environments.

*Should answer “What kinds of information do people use or seek?”

*State org you are representing.

Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia
Public access to criminal trials

What are systematic actions and messages designed to influence what people in keypublics think about an organization?
Reputation Management

Don’t call a news conference unless:
(1) you have real news that you need to deliver simultaneously to many news organizations
(2) you need to have an expert present to answer questions
(3) you need to demonstrate the subject of the news story.

Excellence Theory of PR
PS-O-IH

Participatory rather than authoritative cultures
Symmetrical system of internal communication
Organic rather than mechanical structures
Intentional efforts to equalize opportunities for men and women
High job satisfaction among employees.

Blackouts in PR
Two common blackouts are related to employee benefits and political campaigns. A human resources blackout is a temporary period during which access, often to retirement or investment funds are, is limited or denied. In terms of advertising, a blackout can refer to a political party’s restriction on advertising for a set period before an election.

The Gunning Fox Index is one method used for measuring___
Readability

PESO Examples
Paid (advertising – controlled)
Earned (publicity – uncontrolled)
Shared (social media – uncontrolled)
Owned (internal – controlled)

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