{"id":121666,"date":"2023-10-22T22:20:20","date_gmt":"2023-10-22T22:20:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/learnexams.com\/blog\/?p=121666"},"modified":"2023-10-22T22:20:22","modified_gmt":"2023-10-22T22:20:22","slug":"fndh-400-exam-1-2-3-4-questions-and-answers-2023-2024-verified-answers-2","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/2023\/10\/22\/fndh-400-exam-1-2-3-4-questions-and-answers-2023-2024-verified-answers-2\/","title":{"rendered":"FNDH 400 Exam 1, 2, 3, 4, Questions and Answers (2023 \/ 2024) (Verified Answers)"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>1 \/ 19<br>FNDH 400 Exam 1 &#8211; 4<br>FNDH 400 Exam 1<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Carbohydrates are made of: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Proteins are made of: Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lipids include: fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lipids are made of: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Macronutrients definition: Nutrients needed in large amounts<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Micronutrients definition: Nutrients needed in smaller amounts but still important<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What are the macronutrients?: Carbs, Proteins, Lipids, Water<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What are the micronutrients?: Vitamins and minerals<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What is a vitamin: COMPOUNDS essential for normal physiological processes<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What is a mineral: ELEMENTS essential for normal physiological processes<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>2 \/ 19<br>in the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\" start=\"11\">\n<li>What is a calorie?: Energy needed to raise 1 g of water 1 degree C<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How are kcals determined: A food is put into a bomb calorimeter and the<br>energy output is determined by the heat produced<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kcal\/g of the nutrients: Carbs: 4<br>Proteins: 4<br>Lipids: 9<br>Vitamins, Minerals, Water: 0<br>Alcohol: 7 (but not a nutrient)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Phytochemical definition: Compounds found in plants that are believed to<br>provide healthy benefits beyond the traditional nutrients<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Phytochemical found in tomatoes that is thought to decrease cancer risk<br>(esp. prostate): Lycopene<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Diets rich in and have been shown with a decreased rate in<br>chronic diseases.: fruits and vegetables<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Zoochemicals: Compounds found in animals that are believed to provide<br>healthy benefits beyond the traditional nutrients<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>3 \/ 19<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\" start=\"18\">\n<li>Compounds that are both phyto and zoochemicals: Lutein and Zeaxanthin<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>yellow carotenoids found in kale, spinach, and corn. or found in egg yolk<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\" start=\"18\">\n<li>Functional food defintion: A food, or food ingredient, that may provide a<br>health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>4 \/ 19<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\" start=\"21\">\n<li>3 types of studies: Cross-sectional: Present<br>Case-control: Past<br>Prospective cohort: future<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cross-sectional study: Compare different populations at the same point in<br>time<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Example of a cross-sectional study: French paradox. Despite consuming<br>same amount of cholesterol\/saturated fat france had 5x lower death rate from<br>coronary heart disease. Led to research into resveratol (red wine)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ecologic fallacy: Believing that members of the group have characteristcs,<br>which as individuals they do not<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Case control study: Look at a group of cases vs controls<br>Retrospective<br>Often uses food frequency questionnaires<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Prospective Cohort study: Initial information on a group collected (food frequency questionnaire) and then group is followed over time to quantify health<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Scientific method:<br>get pdf at ;<a href=\"https:\/\/learnexams.com\/search\/study?query=\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/learnexams.com\/search\/study?query=<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/10\/download-2023-10-23T011912.142-725x1024.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-121667\"\/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>what digestive enzymes are released in the mouth?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>salivary amylase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lingual lipase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>lysozyme<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>salivary amylase?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>released in the mouth<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cleaves 1, 4-glycosidic bonds (carbohydrate molecules)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>lingual lipase<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>released in the mouth<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>more active in the stomach where it cleaves short-chain fatty acids in the sn-3 position of triglycerides<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>plays a small role in adults<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>may be more important to infants to help break down triglycerides in the breast milk<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>lysozyme?<br>non digestive enzyme that breaks down bacteria cell walls to prevent a possible infection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>peristalsis?<br>wavelike constant movement that is caused by muscular contractions to move food from the stomach through the pylorus into the duodenum &amp; throughout the digestive system<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>heartburn?<br>burning sensation (acid reflux) in the esophagus due to the very acidic gastric juices from the stomach moving back up b\/c the lower esophageal sphincter is leaking<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are the different secretions from the gastric pits? what digestive processes occurring in the stomach?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Gastrin stimulates the release of pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Hydrochloric acid denatures salivary amylase, proteins, and activates pepsinogen to pepsin<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gastric lipase is also released by gastrin stimulation, cleaving sn-3 fatty acids<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The stomach is converting food to chyme<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In the process of gastric emptying, the chyme exits the stomach through the pyloric sphincter<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>mucus helps protect the lining of the stomach from the acids<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>villi?<br>finger like projections in the small intestine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>enterocytes?<br>an absorptive cell w\/ a brush border (apical) membrane that form a glycoprotein-carbohydrate layer<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>microvilli?<br>microvilli on the enterocytes increase the absorptive area by 600 times<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>lumen?<br>the cavity &#8220;outside of the body&#8221; that chyme moves through<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are the digestion accessory organs?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>liver<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>gallbladder<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>salivary glands<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>pancreas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>liver?<br>organ of digestion &amp; excretion that produces bile for lipid digestion<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>hepatocytes = primary functioning liver cells<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>hepatic stellate cells = lipid storing cells<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>gallbladder?<br>stores and concentrates bile from the liver &amp; secretes it into the duodenum as needed for digestion<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>salivary glands?<br>produce saliva which helps w\/ the process of swallowing &amp; chewing food<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>enzyme amylase makes it easier for the stomach to break down starch<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>pancreas?<br>secretes pancreatic juice (bicarbonate &amp; digestive enzymes) into the duodenum<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>dual endocrine &amp; exocrine gland near the stomach that secretes insulin &amp; glucagon, which regulate blood glucose, as well as enzymes that aid in digestion &amp; break down sugars, fats, starches<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>contents of pancreatic juice?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>bicarbonate w\/ a pH of 8 that helps to neutralize the chyme that comes in extremely acidic at a pH of 1<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>digestive enzymes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>purpose of pancreatic juice?<br>neutralizing agent &amp; provides necessary enzymes:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>pancreatic alpha amylase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>proteases<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>pancreatic lipase &amp; procolipase (not an enzyme)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>phospholipase A2 &amp; cholesterol esterase<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>purpose of bile?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>break down fats<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>has an emulsification action acting against triglycerides\/fats<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>fat is hydrophobic &amp; is entering a watery environment<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>what enzymes are active in the small intestine?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>pancreatic alpha-amylase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>brush border disaccharide<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>pancreatic lipase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>colipase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>phospholipase A2<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cholesterol esterase<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>proteases<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>brush border peptide<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>what products left for uptake into enterocytes (after active enzymes)?<br>carbohydrates, protein, triglycerides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>carbohydrates? (into enterocytes)<br>pancreatic-alpha amylase breaks the 1-4 alpha glycosidic bonds in polysaccharides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>disaccharide enzymes (lactase, sucrase, maltase) are ectoenzymes on the brush of enterocytes that cleaves disaccharides into monosaccharides so they can be absorbed<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>aplha-dextrinase, also on the brush border, cleaves alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds in dextrins<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>end product &#8211;&gt; glucose, fructose, galactose are ready for absorption into enterocyte<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>protein? (into enterocytes?<br>proteases are activated in a cascade<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>end products &#8211;&gt; peptides (tripeptides &amp; dipeptides) and amino acids<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>peptidases on the brush border cleave peptides to individual amino acids or small peptides<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>probiotics?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>live microorganism that is consumed &amp; colonizes in the body<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>consumption of bacteria itself<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>prebiotic?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>nondigestible food component that selectiely stimulates growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>typically fermented bacteria<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ex: insulin, other fructose-containing oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, resistant starch<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>due to oligosaccharide composition (beta bonds) it survives digestion in the small intestine so it can be fermented in the colon<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>synbiotic?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>contains both probiotics &amp; prebiotics<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>believed to have a synergistic effect by inhibiting the growth of pathogenic bacteria &amp; enhancing the growth of beneficial organisms<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>postbiotics?<br>metabolites secreted by microbiota<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the gut microbiota? how does the concentration vary throughout the GI tract?<br>microbiota = microorganisms found in the GI tract<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>measured in colony forming units (CFU)<br>&amp; is highest in the colon<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>concentration increases as you move down the GI tract<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>microorganisms that inhabit the GI tract?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>flora, microflora, microbiota<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>density of the microorganisms increases as you move down the GI tract<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>what are macronutrients<br>-nutrients needed in larger amounts<br>-carbohydrates, protein, lipid (fats), water<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are micronutrients<br>-nutrients needed in smaller amounts (but still important)<br>-vitamins &amp; minerals<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>carbohydrates?<br>-made of carbon, hydrogen, &amp; oxygen<br>-example: sucrose (table sugar)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>proteins?<br>-made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, &amp; contain nitrogen<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>lipids?<br>-consist of fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, &amp; sterols (cholesterol)<br>-composed of carbon, hydrogen, &amp; oxygen<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>water?<br>-made up of oxygen &amp; hydrogen<br>-only macronutrient that does not provide energy<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>vitamins?<br>organic compounds that are essential for normal physiologic processes in the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>minerals?<br>elements<br>(think periodic table) that are essential for normal physiological processes in the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>understand what a &#8220;calorie,&#8221; as used by the public, represents<br>-kilocalorie is commonly referred to as &#8220;calorie&#8221;<br>-kilocalorie = amount of energy needed to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 degree celsius<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>a food&#8217;s kilocalories are determined by putting the food into a bomb calorimeter and determine the energy output (energy = heat produced)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>know what nutrients provide energy &amp; how much<br>-protein = 4 kcal\/g<br>-carbs = 4 kcal\/g<br>-protein = 9 kcal\/g<br>-alcohol = 7 kcal\/g (not considered a nutrient, but still provides energy)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are functional foods?<br>-generally a food or ingredient that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients (macro\/micronutrients) it contains<br>-often a rich source of a phytochemical or zoochemical, or contain more of a certain nutrient than a normal food<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are phytochemicals?<br>-compounds in plants (phyto) that are believed to provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients<br>-ex: lycopene in tomatoes)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are zoochemicals?<br>-compounds in animals that are believed to provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients that food contains<br>-ex: lutein &amp; zeaxanthin found in egg yolks)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>different forms of nutrition research<br>-cross sectional<br>-case control<br>-cohort<br>-in vitro<br>-in vivo<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a cross sectional study?<br>-comparing different populations at the same time<br>-ex: comparing different countries to each other<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a case control study?<br>-retrospective (looking back in time), looking at cases (diseased) vs. control (no disease) and comparing them to each other, food frequency questionnaire<br>-used in many types of epidemiology<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a cohort study?<br>prospective (looking ahead\/following as time goes on?, information is taken at the beginning of the study as a baseline and then see if they develop a disease<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a in vitro study?<br>research done within cells, cells grow in an incubator<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is an in vivo study?<br>in living (animals\/humans), often done in rats since it is unethical to do in humans<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a clinical trial study?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a human intervention study?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is statistical significance?<br>-represented by p values<br>-&lt;0.05, but 0.05 is not statistical significant<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is interpreting research statistics? (OR, RR, HR)<br>1 = neutral<br>less than 1 = decrease risk<br>greater than 1 = increase risk<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>understand the process to publish a research article<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>researchers write a paper<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>researchers submit their paper to a journal<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>reviewers provide recommendations to the researcher about the paper<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>researchers complete revisions and editor approves paper<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>paper is published<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>know how to rank the different forms of nutrition evidence (1-7)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>systematic literature reviews<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>clinical trials<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cohort<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>case control<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cross sectional<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>animal studies<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>in vitro<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a systematic literature review? (why ranked 1)<br>are considered the highest level of nutrition research evidence because they synthesize the findings from multiple trials or studies<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a clinical trial\/human studies? (why ranked 2)<br>best form of primary research because their findings should be directly translatable to patients<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is an in vitro study? (why ranked last)<br>-lower quality than the animal study because digestion and bioavailability are not always being accounted for and it&#8217;s a simpler model -animals metabolism and physiology is different than humans<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a simple carbohydrate?<br>contain either 1 or 2 sugars (monosaccharides; 1 &amp; disaccharides; 2)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a complex carbohydrate?<br>contain 3 or more sugars (oligosaccharides; 3-10 &amp; polysaccharides; &gt;10)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are types of monosaccharides? (containing 1 sugar)<br>glucose, fructose, galactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are types of disaccharides? (containing 2 sugars)<br>maltose, sucrose, lactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is galactose?<br>monosaccharide; rarely found alone in nature, normally found in the disaccharide lactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is fructose?<br>monosaccharide; 5 member ring structure; commonly found in fruits and used commercially in many beverages and is considered the sweetest monosaccharide<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is glucose?<br>monosaccharide, product of photosynthesis, major source of energy in our bodies<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is maltose?<br>disaccharide, 2 glucose bonded together by alpha bond, present in alcoholic beverages &amp; barley<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is lactose?<br>disaccharide, glucose and galactose bonded by beta bond, different than other disaccharides because of beta bond<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is sucrose?<br>disaccharide, glucose and fructose, alpha bond, table sugar, only made by plants<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the difference between high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose?<br>-glucose and fructose are free in HFCS, bonded together in sucrose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is similar between high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose?<br>-both are similar in amount of monosaccharides (glucose &amp; fructose) it contains<br>-fructose consumption is the same from sucrose &amp; HFCS<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are sugar alcohols?<br>-less sweet than caloric sweeteners<br>-provide about half the calories of sucrose<br>-consuming a large amount can cause laxative effect<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>why are sugar alcohols a product good option for chewing gum?<br>advantage of sugar alcohols over sugars is that sugar alcohols are not fermented by bacteria on the tooth surface<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are the alternative sweeteners?<br>-aspartame<br>-saccharine<br>-neotame<br>-advantame<br>-acesulfame K<br>-sucralose<br>-stevia<br>-monk fruit<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is saccharine?<br>-bitter and sweet<br>-heat stable alternative sweetener<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is aspartame?<br>-PKU cannot eat because the lack of phenylalanine hydroxylase can lead to brain damage and mental retardation<br>-when heated, loses its sweet flavor<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is neotame?<br>-similar to aspartame, sweeter<br>-not a concern for those with PKU<br>-heat stable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is advantame?<br>-similar to aspartame<br>-sweetest<br>-not a concern for those with PKU<br>-heat stable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is acesulfame-K?<br>-not digested or absorbed, provides no energy or potassium to the body<br>-heat stable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is sucralose?<br>-similar to sucrose except that 3 OH are replaced by Cl<br>-not digested<br>-heat stable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is stevia?<br>-natural<br>-heat stable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is monk fruit?<br>-lou han guo<br>-natural<br>-heat stable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are the structural differences between oligosaccharides and polysaccharides?<br>-oligosaccharides are composed of 3-10 monosaccharides bonded together (oligo means few)<br>-oligosaccharides are not digested and reach the colon to be fermented = gas<br>-polysaccharides contain greater than 10 monosaccharides bonded together (ie. starch, glycogen, most fibers)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is Beano and how does it work?<br>contains an enzyme (alpha-galactosidase) to breakdown oligosaccharides, thus preventing them from reaching the colon &amp; being fermented to produce gas<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is starch? (polysaccharide)<br>-storage form of glucose in plants<br>-amylose &amp; amylopectin are the two kinds of starch<br>-amylose is a linear polysaccharide, where are amylopectin is branched<br>-amylose is linear with only \u03b1 1-4 bond<br>-amylopectin is branched and has \u03b1 1-4 and \u03b1 1-6 bonds (branched points)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is glycogen? (polysaccharide)<br>-animal storage of glucose<br>-branched points are \u03b1 1-6 bonds and linear bonds are \u03b1 1-4 bonds<br>-multiple ends are where enzymes cleave off glucose molecules<br>-many ends available = provides glucose much more quickly to the body than it could if it was linear<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is nonfermentable, nonviscous fiber?<br>-decreases constipation and decreases colon cancer<br>-makes stools bulkier which decreases the time it stays in the colon, reducing the amount of time the colon is exposed to carcinogens<br>-was considered insoluble<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is fermentable, viscous fiber?<br>-decreases blood cholesterol &amp; blood glucose<br>-was soluble<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the structure of amino acids?<br>-building blocks of protein (the base)<br>-made up of an amino group, a carboxylic acid, and a side group that varies between them all<br>-&#8220;R&#8221; group changes the structure of the chain to an amino acid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the structure of a protein?<br>-primary: linear polypeptide chain<br>-secondary: beta-pleated sheets or alpha-helices due to H bonding between amino acids in the same polypeptide<br>-tertiary: attraction between two different amino acids of secondary structures<br>-quaternary: globular, multiple polypeptide chains bonded together<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>how are proteins synthesized?<br>-cells make proteins through transcription &amp; translation<br>-transcription = transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA<br>-translation = uses the mRNA formed from DNA as a transcript, mRNA is read in 3 letter codons that correspond to the anticodon on the tRNA, the proper amino acid for each anticodon is attached to the tRNA and as you move from codon to codon on the mRNA transcript you synthesize a polypeptide<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is an essential amino acid?<br>-cannot synthesize 9 amino acids<br>-need to consume in diet<br>-known as indispensable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a conditionally essential amino acid?<br>not usually essential but can become in special circumstances<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a non-essential amino acid?<br>-can be made in our body, so we do not need to consume<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is PKU?<br>-has a mutation in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase prevents the normal conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine<br>-tyrosine is conditionally essential for people with PKU becuase it cannot be synthesized by the body<br>-needs to limit protein and aspartame intake<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>how does PKU relate to amino acids and aspartame?<br>-tyrosine cannot be synthesized by people with<br>PKU<br>, it becomes essential for them<br>-ppl w\/<br>PKU have to avoid the alternative sweetener aspartame<br>, because it can be broken down to phenylalanine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a limiting amino acid?<br>-an essential amino acid is one that is not found in adequate amounts in an incomplete protein<br>-it is the amino acid that limits a protein from being complete<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a complete protein?<br>a protein that contains adequate amounts of the 9 essential amino acids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is an incomplete protein?<br>protein contains a limiting amino acid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are complementary proteins?<br>-incomplete proteins with different limiting amino acids to provide adequate amounts of the essential amino acids<br>-they supply the amino acid(s) missing in the other protein<br>-do not need to be consumed at the same time or meal, met on daily basis<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is an Amino acid score?<br>-does not incorporate protein digestibility<br>-limiting essential amino acid\/needs of same essential amino acid<br>-less than 100 indicates that at least 1 amino acid is limiting and it&#8217;s incomplete<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is PDCAAS?<br>-protein digestibility<br>-Amino acid score x digestibility<br>-truncated at 100<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is DIAAS?<br>-amino acid digestibility<br>-iileal digestibility: end of small intestine where amino acid uptake\/absorption occurs<br>-3 reference patterns (age groups)<br>-not truncated<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the Kwashiorkor class or protein-energy malnutrition?<br>-round belly, frail limbs<br>-have energy but inadequate protein intake<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the Marasmus class or protein-energy malnutrition?<br>-dying away<br>-no energy, inadequate protein intake<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what are differences between how lipids, fats, and oils are defined? (chemist vs. caloric)<br>-chemist: differentiated by their physical properties (solid, liquid at room temp)<br>-caloric: caloric effect (9 kcal\/g = fat)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a trans fatty acid?<br>-partial hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids<br>-melting point increase<br>-more likely to be solid at room temperature<br>-more shel stable = more resistant to oxidation<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is a cis fatty acid?<br>-most are natural unsaturated fatty acid<br>-do not pack together well like trans and saturated<br>-melting point is lower than trans and saturated<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is the omega system?<br>-counts carbons from methyl end to carboxylic acid end of a compound<br>-mega symbol represent location of first double bond<br>-to know name of fatty acid, you have to know the # of carbons, how many many double bonds, &amp; location of first double bond (counting from methyl end)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>omega system example? (monounsaturated)<br>oleic acid- 18:1 (n-9) has 18 carbons, one double bond, and the double bond is located at the 9th carbon counting from the methyl end<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>this is a monounsaturated fatty acid b\/c it has one double bond &amp; is in a cis formation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>omega system example? (saturated)<br>palmitic acid- 16:0. &#8211; 16 carbons counting from the methyl end &amp; no double bonds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>what is hydrogenation?<br>-the addition of hydrogens to the carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain<br>-if unsaturated fatty acid is completely hydrogenated = converted to a saturated fatty acid<br>-increase melting point = solid at room temp<br>-increase shelf life = prevent oxidation<br>-increases low density lipoprotein &amp; decreases high density lipoprotein levels<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>why are linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid essential?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>we cannot synthesize them- no enzyme to desaturate them (add a double bond) at the omega 6 &amp; 3 position- they are both polyunsaturated<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>differences between omega-3 &amp; omega-6 fatty acids in eicosanoid production? how does it relate to health?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>omega-3 fatty acids derived eicosanoids are considered anti-inflammatory so by replacing the more inflammatory than omega-6 fatty acid derived eicosanoids.- omega-3 &amp; omega-6 fatty acids compete for the same enzymes, thus consuming more omega-6 than omega-3 may be more detrimental to one&#8217;s health than helpful- difference between both is primarily a result of the eicosanoids produced from them<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>triglycerides structure?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>glyceride backbone<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>consists of 3 fatty acids<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>sterols structure?<br>consists of carbon rings, a cholesterol ester, &amp; a fatty acid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>phospholipid structure?<br>phosphate &amp; choline head + glycerol neck + 2 fatty acid tails<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Carbohydrates are made of<br>Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Proteins are made of<br>Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lipids include<br>fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lipids are made of<br>Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Macronutrients definition<br>Nutrients needed in large amounts<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Micronutrients definition<br>Nutrients needed in smaller amounts but still important<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What are the macronutrients?<br>Carbs, Proteins, Lipids, Water<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What are the micronutrients?<br>Vitamins and minerals<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is a vitamin<br>COMPOUNDS essential for normal physiological processes<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is a mineral<br>ELEMENTS essential for normal physiological processes in the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is a calorie?<br>Energy needed to raise 1 g of water 1 degree C<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How are kcals determined<br>A food is put into a bomb calorimeter and the energy output is determined by the heat produced<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kcal\/g of the nutrients<br>Carbs: 4<br>Proteins: 4<br>Lipids: 9<br>Vitamins, Minerals, Water: 0<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Alcohol: 7 (but not a nutrient)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Phytochemical definition<br>Compounds found in plants that are believed to provide healthy benefits beyond the traditional nutrients<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Phytochemical found in tomatoes that is thought to decrease cancer risk (esp. prostate)<br>Lycopene<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Diets rich in <strong><em>__ and<\/em><\/strong> have been shown with a decreased rate in chronic diseases.<br>fruits and vegetables<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zoochemicals<br>Compounds found in animals that are believed to provide healthy benefits beyond the traditional nutrients<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Compounds that are both phyto and zoochemicals<br>Lutein and Zeaxanthin &#8211; yellow carotenoids found in kale, spinach, and corn. or found in egg yolk<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Functional food defintion<br>A food, or food ingredient, that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Scientific method<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>3 types of studies<br>Cross-sectional: Present<br>Case-control: Past<br>Prospective cohort: future<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cross-sectional study<br>Compare different populations at the same point in time<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Example of a cross-sectional study<br>French paradox. Despite consuming same amount of cholesterol\/saturated fat france had 5x lower death rate from coronary heart disease. Led to research into resveratol (red wine)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ecologic fallacy<br>Believing that members of the group have characteristcs, which as individuals they do not<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Case control study<br>Look at a group of cases vs controls<br>Retrospective<br>Often uses food frequency questionnaires<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Prospective Cohort study<br>Initial information on a group collected (food frequency questionnaire) and then group is followed over time to quantify health outcomes of the individual<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Framingham Heart Study<br>Started in 1948<br>Following residents to identify risk factors for heart disease<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Nurses Health Study<br>Started in 1976<br>Every 4 years, 122k nurses are given food frequency questionnaires<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Health Professionals Follow up study<br>Started in 1986<br>51K male health professionals<br>Every 4 years, food frequency questionnaires<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>From the Health Professionals Follow Up study, what was determined<br>Tomato sauce, tomatoes, pizza, and strawberries had decreased incidence of prostate cancer<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What did the foods have in common from the Health Professionals Follow Up Study?<br>Tomato &#8211;&gt; Lycopene<br>Strawberries &#8211;&gt; Anthocyanins<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In vitro research<br>Simplest form of nutrition research<br>Means &#8220;within glass&#8221;<br>Cell culture<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In vivo research<br>Animal study<br>often mice and Rats<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pros\/Cons of in vivo research<br>Pros<br>Can do tests that are considered unethical for humans<br>Knows exactly what subject eats<br>Expert reporting<br>Cons<br>Animal metabolism\/physiology is different<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Clinical trial<br>Scientifically controlled study using consenting people to find the safety and effectiveness of different items\/regimens<br>Gold standard<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A p-value of less than <em>_<\/em> is used to indicate statistical significance.<br>Meaning that\u2026<br>.05<br>5% of the time the results are accidental or not true<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>OR, RR, HR values and signficance<br>&lt;1 is lowered risk with exposure<br>1 is no effect<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>1 is increased risk with exposure<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>Confidence interval<br>Estimated range that the measure is calulated to include<br>Often 95%<br>Large VI = Less confidence in value<br>Small CI = More confidence in value<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Must not overlap 1 for OR,RR, or HR to be considered significant<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>American Society for Nutrition publishes which journals?<br>Journal of Nutrition<br>American Journal of Clinical Nutrition<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Academy of Nutrition and Dietics publishes which journals?<br>Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Systematic literature review; considers which type of studies<br>Finds conclusion based on evidence in multiple journal articles<br>Only considers Epidemiological studies and Clinical Trials<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Epiemiolgical studies <em>__<\/em> show causalty<br>Cannot. Instead just identifies relationships or associations<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is the best form of primary research?<br>Clinical trials\/human studies<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ranking of research types, from best to worse<br>Systematic Literature Reviews<br>Clincial trials<br>Prospective Cohort<br>Case-Control<br>Cross-Sectional<br>Animal Studies\/In vivo<br>In vitro<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Order of research progression<br>Epidemiological<br>In vitro<br>Animal studies<br>Clinical trials<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Beta carotene and lung cancer<br>Thought high dose beta-carotene would decrease lung cancer risk, but actually increased it!<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Selenium, Vitamin E, Prostate Cancer<br>Thought it would decrease prostate cancer. Vitamin E increased cancer, Selenium increased diabetes<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Secondary result<br>Not primary outcome the trial was designed to find<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reductionist approach<br>Takes a complex food and reduces it to simpler componets<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Monosaccharides<br>Glucose<br>Fructose<br>Galactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Disaccharides<br>Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose<br>Glucose + Glucose = Maltose<br>Glucose + Galactose = Lactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What are polysaccharides? Common forms?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p>10 sugars<br>Starch (Amylose and Amylopectin)<br>Glycogen<br>Fibers (Cellulose, Gums, Pectin)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>Oligosaccharides<br>Raffinose<br>Stachyose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Glucose<br>6-member ring<br>Product of photosynthesis<br>Major source of energy in our body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fructose &#8211; bond appearance?<br>5-member ring<br>Commonly found in fruits<br>Commercially used in many beverages<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Galactose<br>6-member ring<br>Not normally found in nature alone<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How are disaccharides formed?<br>2 monosacharides and a hydration reaction<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Maltose<br>Glucose + Glucose<br>Alpha bond<br>Malt sugar<br>Seldom found in foods<br>Alcoholic beverages and barley<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sucrose<br>Glucose + Fructose<br>Alpha Bond<br>Table Sugar<br>Only made by plants<br>Calories<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lactose; bond<br>Galactose + Glucose<br>Beta bond<br>Milk Sugar<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Glycosidic<br>Sugar bond<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Why do we need lactase?<br>To break the beta bond found in lactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>High fructose corn syrup ratio<br>42-55% Fructose<br>45-58% Glucose<br>VERY similar to sucrose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sugar Alcohol<br>&#8220;Sugar replacer&#8221;<br>Nutritive sweeteners &#8211;&gt; Calories<br>Nearly as sweet as sucrose, half the calories<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Why are sugar alcohols often found in gum?<br>Not fermented by bacteria on the tooth surface &#8211;&gt; No dental caries<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How does sugar cause tooth decay?<br>Fermented by bacteria on surface of teeth<br>Higher acidity which leads to decay<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Tagatose<br>Isomer of fructose<br>Small amount of energy (1.5kcal\/g)<br>80% reaches large intestine to be fermented by bacteria = prebiotic-like<br>Structurally similar to sugar alcohol<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Non-nutritive sweteners<br>Aspartame<br>Advantame<br>Acesulfame-Potassium (K)<br>Luo Han Guo Fruit Extract<br>Stevia<br>Saccharin<br>Sucralose<br>Neotame<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Saccharin<br>If used in cooking, will develop bitter taste<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Aspartame<br>Broken down to amino acids during digestion<br>provides 4 kcal\/g but not significant<br>Can be broken down to phenylalanine<br>When heated, loses its sweet flavor<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Neotame<br>Structurally identical to aspartame but has additional side group<br>Sweeter than aspartame<br>Heat-stable<br>Not broken down to amino acids &#8211;&gt; No PKU trouble<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Advantame<br>Heat stable<br>High acceptable daily intake<br>Sweetest<br>Newest<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Acesulfame-Potassium (K)<br>Not digested or absorbed<br>No energy<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sucralose<br>Structurally similar to sucrose except 3 of alcohol groups are replaced by Chlorine<br>b\/c of this Not digested<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Stevia<br>Plant<br>Steviol glycosides &#8211;&gt; sweet taste<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Luo han guo fruit extracts<br>Chinese fruit<br>Mogrosides &#8211;&gt; Sweet taste<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How does our body deal with oligosaccharides<br>Cannot digest alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds<br>Fermented by bacteria in colon &#8211;&gt; Gas<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Beano<br>Alpha-galactosidase breaks down oligosaccharides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How is starch used in plants<br>Storage form of glucose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Amylose structure<br>Linear polysaccharide<br>alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Amylopectin stucture<br>Branched<br>alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Which amylo is more common in starch?<br>Amylopectin is more common than amylose (4:1)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Glycogen is used how in animals<br>Storage form of glucose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Glycogen structure<br>Highly branched<br>alpha 1-6 branched bonds<br>alpha 1-4 linear<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Advantage of glycogen highly branched structure<br>Multiple ends are where enzymes cleave off glucose molecules<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Do we get glycogen&gt;<br>No! broken down in animals after slaughter<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fiber definition<br>indigestible matter<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dietary fiber<br>Non digestible carbs and lignins that are intrinsic and intact in plants<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Functional fiber<br>Isolated, nondigestible carbs that have beneficial physiological effects in humans<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Total fiber<br>dietary fiber and functional<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dietary vs functional fiber<br>Dietary:<br>Intact in Plants<br>Carbs and lignins<br>Only from plants<br>No proven benefit<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Functional fiber:<br>Isolated, extracted, synthesized<br>Only carbs<br>From plants or animals<br>Must prove benefit<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Polysaccharide fiber differes from other polysaccharides in what structural way<br>contains beta-glycosidic bonds (as opposed to alpha glycosidic bonds)<br>Cannot be broken down<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Good foods with nonfermentable nonviscous fiber<br>Whole wheat, whole-grain cereals, broccoli, and other veggies<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Benefits of nonfermenable nonviscous fiber<br>Increase stool bulk, reduce transit time &#8211;&gt; Lowers risk of constipation<br>Lower risk of colon cancer&#8211;&gt; Less exposure to consumed carcinogens<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sources of fermentable viscous fiber<br>Oats, rice bran, psyllium seeds, soy, some fruits<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Benefits of fermentable viscous fiber<br>Lowers risk of heart disease and diabetes<br>Slows absorption of glucose &#8211;&gt; Prevents blood glucose from spiking after consuming carbs<br>Binds bile acids (cholesterol) and causes them to be excreted &#8211;&gt; More cholesterol used to create bile acids &#8211;&gt; Low cholesterol<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protein synthesis<br>DNA contains genetic code that&#8217;s used as a template to create mRNA in transcription. mRNA then moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasam where it serves as a template for translation, where tRNAs bring in amino acids to form polypeptide<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protein structure function<br>Collagen &#8211; scaffolding of the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hormone<br>Compound produced in one tissue, released into circulation, then has an effect on a different organ<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Proteins and Fluid balance<br>Proteins help maintain balance between plasma and interstitial fluid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Acid Base balance<br>Proteins act as buffers<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How can proteins be used for energy?<br>Gluconeogenisis &#8211;&gt; Forms glucose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Essential amino acids<br>Body cannot synthesize at all<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Conditionally essential amino acids<br>Under normal circumstances the body can synthesize these, but are essential for individuals in certain situations (ex. PKU and the need for Tyrosine)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Non-essential<br>Can be made in body, do not need to consume them<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>PKU and diet<br>Phenalyenine would typically be broken down into tyrosine. Due to a mutation, it cannot be. Phen and its metabolites build up leading to brain damage and mental retardation.<br>Must have low protein diet and avoid aspartame because it is broken down to phen<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Complete proteins<br>Provide adequate amounts of all nine essential amino acids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Good sources: animal proteins<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Incomplete proteins<br>Do not contain adequate amounts of one or more essential amino acids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Often plant based proteins<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How do you solve incomplete proteins?<br>Complementary proteins<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Complementary proteins<br>When you pair two or more incomplete proteins with different limiting amino acids to provide adequate amounts of essential<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Measures of protein quality<br>BV &#8211; Biological Value<br>PER &#8211; Protein Efficiency Ratio<br>AAS &#8211; Chemical\/Amino Acid Score<br>PDCAAS &#8211; Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score<br>DIAAS &#8211; Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Biological value (BV)<br>[(gram of nitrogen retained) \/ (grams of nitrogen absorbed)] x 100<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protein efficiency ratio (PER)<br>(grams of weight gained) \/ ( gains of protein consumed)<br>Commonly performed in growing rats<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Chemical\/Amino Acid Score (AAS)<br>(Test food limiting essential amino acid) \/ (needs of same amino acid score)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid (PDCAAS)<br>(Amino Acid Score) x (Digestibility)<br>Most widely used<br>Was preferred by Food and Agriculture Association and WHO until recently<br>Score truncated at 100<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS)<br>100 x (mg of digestible dietary indispensable amino acid in 1g of the dietary protein) \/ (mg of the same dietary indispensable amino acid in 1g of the reference protein)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>New standard<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Why DIAAS is better<br>No truncating scores<br>Samples from intestine instead of fecal matter<br>Measures digestion of individual amino acids, not just crude protein<br>3 reference groups instead of one<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protein deficiency is commonly called<br>Protein-energy malutrition<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kwashiorkor<br>&#8220;The disease that the first child gets when the new child comes&#8221;<br>Marginal energy, inadequate protein intake<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Marasmus<br>&#8220;To waste away&#8221;<br>Inadequate protein and energy intake<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What do lipids consist of<br>Triglycerides<br>Fatty Acids<br>Phospholipids<br>Sterols<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What are considered fats?<br>Triglycerides, fatty acids, and phospholipids that provide 9kcal.g<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Oil according to chemist vs nutrition<br>Chemist: Oil b\/c solid at room temp<br>Nutrition: Fat b\/c 9kcal\/g<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Difference of fatty acids<br>Carbon chain length<br>Saturation\/Unsaturation<br>Double bond configurations<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fatty acid chain length and classification<br>Short: &lt;6 Medium: 6-10 Long &gt;12<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Most fatty acids contain somewhere between <strong><em>_ carbons with <\/em><\/strong><em>numbers more common than __<\/em>.<br>4-24 carbons<br>Even more common than odd<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Carbon chain length and melting points<br>Longer chain, higher melting point<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What does a unsaturated fatty acid contain?<br>Double bond<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Which is the more natural double bond formation is unsaturated fatty acids?<br>cis<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Difference between cis and trans\/sat fat<br>Cis do not pack together as well<br>Cis have lower melting point<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Source of trans fat in our diets<br>Hydrogenation (addition of a hydrogen)<br>Stick-margarine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reasons for hydrogenation<br>More solid texture<br>More shelf stable (double bonds in ufa are susceptible to oxidation)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Partial hyrdrogenation<br>Cis &#8211;&gt; Trans<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Saturated fats<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Which is worse trans or saturated fat? Why?<br>Trans, alters biomarkers for cardiovascular disease<br>Trans: Increase LDL and lowers HDL<br>Sat: increases LDL, doesn&#8217;t change HDL<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Three naming systems for fatty acids<br>Delta<br>Omega<br>Common<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What do you need to know for delta?<br>Number of carbons<br>Number of double bonds<br>Number of carbons from carboxylic acid end to first carbon in double bond<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How to name delta<br>Carbon number: Double bonds ^double bond location from carboxylic end<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>10:1 triangle^7<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Need to know to name with omega<br>Number of carbons<br>Number of double bonds<br>Number of carbons from methyl end to first carbon in double bond<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>10:1 n-3<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Linoleic acid<br>omega 6<br>essential<br>can be elongated by elongase enzymes for eicosanoid production<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>a-Linolenic Acid<br>omega-3<br>essential<br>can be elongated by elongase enzymes for eicosanoid production<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Source of omega-6<br>Corn, walnut, soybean<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Source of omega-3<br>Flax seed<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Source of mufa<br>Canola and olive oil<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Source of saturated fatty acids<br>Lard, palm oil, butter, coconut oil<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Why are linoleic and alpha linoleic acid essential?<br>Why are other fatty acids not?<br>We don&#8217;t have an enzyme capable of adding a double bond beyond the omega-9 carbon (can&#8217;t add omega 3 and omega 6 bonds)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Other fatty acids are not essential because we have enzymes that can take them, elongate them (add 2 carbons) and then further desaturate them (add double bonds) to other omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Eicosanoids<br>Biologically active in the body, act locally in the tissue they are producing<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>4 classes of eicosanoids<br>Prostaglandins<br>Prostacyclins<br>Thromboxanes<br>Leukotrienes<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is the cause of the difference in effects of omega 3 and omega 6?<br>Result of the eicosanoids produced from them<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Health effects of omega 6 vs omega 3<br>omega 3 are considered anti-inflamatory when they replace omega-6<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Example of eicosanoids<br>Asprin, inhibits Cox-1 and Cox-2<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What is the most effective way to get long chain fatty acids into our body? why?<br>Dietary. A-la conversion to EPA and DHA is very limited<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Essential fatty acid deprivation<br>Rare<br>Symptoms:<br>Growth retardation<br>Reproductive problems<br>Skin lesions<br>Neurological and visual problems<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Triglycerides<br>Most common lipid in our body and in food we consumed<br>How fatty acids are found in nature<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Triglyceride functions<br>Provide energy<br>Primary form of energy storage in the body<br>Insulate and protect<br>Aid in the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How is a triglyceride formed?<br>Dehydration reaction between a glycerol and three fatty acids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Esterification<br>Fatty acid added to glycerol backbone<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Structure of triglyceride<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Best known phospholipid<br>Lecithin<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Functions of phospholipids<br>Key component of cell lipid bilayer<br>Emulsification<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Are phospholipids essential?<br>No<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sterol sturcture<br>Carbon rings<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How is cholesterol found in foods?<br>Found as a cholesterol ester (fatty acid attached)<br>Only in foods of animal origin<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Is cholesterol essential&gt;<br>no<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Organs in the GI tract<br>Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestines, rectum, and anus<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Digestion accessory organs<br>Salivary glands, pancreas, gallbladder, and liver<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Enzymes in mouth<br>Salivary amylase<br>Lingual lipase (only mainly in infants)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Stomach Enzymes<br>Pepsin<br>Gastric lipase<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Small intestine enzymes<br>Pancreatic alpha-amylase<br>Pancreatic lipase<br>Colipase<br>proteases<br>Brush border disaccharides<br>brush border peptidases<br>phospholipase-a2<br>cholesterol esterase<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mechanical and Chemical digestion in mouth<br>M &#8211; Mastication<br>C &#8211; Salivary amylase (minor) and lysozyme<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lingual lipase realeased, but not active<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>how does salivary amylase work<br>Cleaves alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds in the starch molecules, amylose, and amylopectin<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Salivary amylase cannot\u2026<br>Cleave alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lysozyme function<br>Break down bacterial cell walls to prevent infection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lingual lipase<br>Most active in stomach<br>Cleaves short chain fatty acids in the sn-3 position<br>Most important for infants to break down breast milk<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Esophageal Sphincter<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Digestion in mouth<br>C: Salivary amylase cleaves 1,4-glycosidic bonds (minor)<br>L: Release of lingual lipase<br>P: None<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Surface of Stomach<br>Mucosa covered in gastric pits<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gastric Lipase<br>Cleaves sn-3 position of triglycerides to produce 1,2-diglyceride and a free fatty acid<br>Responsible for 20% of triglyceride digestion<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Action of gastric secretions in the stomach (cells)<br>Neck cells &#8211;&gt; create mucus to protect lining<br>Parietal Cells &#8211;&gt; HCL: inactivates salivary amylase, lowers pH of gastric juice, stimulates pepsinogen to become pepsin, denatures proteins<br>Chief Cells &#8211;&gt; secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase<br>G Cells &#8211;&gt; creates gastrin to stimulate chief and parietal cells<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>How does pepsin work<br>Cleaves proteins to peptides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pyloric sphincter<br>Chyme from stomach to small instestine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Digestion in stomach<br>Protein: Pepsin<br>Fat: Gastric lipase &#8211;&gt; Triglycerides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lining of the small intestine<br>Villi line lumen<br>Enterocytes lie villi<br>Microvilli line enterocytes (Brush border)<br>Glycocalyx line microvili<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Secretin<br>Respons to acid in S.I.<br>Secretes bicarbonate<br>Stimulate bile to flow from liver to gallbladder<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>CCK<br>Responds to fat<br>Secretes digestive enzymes<br>Contracts gall bladder &#8211;&gt; Bile into duodenum<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pancreas cell functions (ABA)<br>Alpha cell &#8211;&gt; Glucagon<br>Beta cell &#8211;&gt; Insulin<br>Acinar cell &#8211;&gt; Pancreatic juice<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Enzymes in pancreatic juice<br>Pancreatic alpha-amylase<br>Protease<br>Pancreatic Lipase and Procolipase<br>Phospholipase A2<br>Cholesterol Esterase<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Liver significance<br>Largest internal and most metabolically active organ in the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Primary Liver cells<br>Hepatocytes &#8211; carry out liver functions<br>Hepatic stellate &#8211; fat storing<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bile consists of<br>Bile acids<br>Cholesterol<br>Phospholipids<br>Pigments &#8211; billrubin and billyerdin<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bile acids are synthesized from..<br>Cholesterol<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Primary bile acids<br>Chenodeoxycholic acid<br>Cholic acid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>found as salts, end with (-ate)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bile acid structure<br>hydrophobic and hyrdrophillic<br>Fat needs to cross watery small intestine to get to the enterocyte<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gallbladder function<br>Store and concentrate bile made by the liver<br>Bile transported to duodenum through common bile duct<br>Triglyceride droplets formed<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Importance of bile<br>Fat is hydrophobic and the environment of the small intestine is watery, the hydrophillic head and hydrophobic tail is a great binder<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Triglyceride droplet function<br>Increase the surface area that is accessible for triglyceride digestion enzymes<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Where is the primary carb digestion?<br>Small intestine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pancreatic alpha-amylase function in small intestine<br>Cleaves alpha 1,4-glycosidic bonds of carbs reducing them to glucose, maltose, maltriose, and dextrins (oligosaccarides containing 1 or more alpha 1,6-glycosidic bonds)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Unable to cleave alpha 1,6-glycosidic bonds (cleaved in alpha-dextrinase on brush border)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Starch Activity on surface of enterocyte<br>Pancreatic amylase products + Sucrose and lactose move to surface. Then disaccharide enzyemes cleave bonds forming monosaccharides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Brush border enzyme alpha dextrinase cleaves alpha 1,6-glycosidic bonds in dectrins, esp. branch point in amylopectine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Final products: Glucose, fructose, galactose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Major site of protein digestion<br>Small intestine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Where do proteases orginate?<br>Pancreas secretes as zymogens into the duodenum where they mus be activated before they can cleave peptide bonds<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protease\/colipase activation cascase<br>Enteropepidase from brush border converts trypsinogen to trypsin &#8211;&gt; activates all proteases including itself and colipase (fat digestion)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Do all proteins need to be cleaved down to amino acids to be absorbed in the enterocyte?<br>No. Small peptides such as di and tripeptides can be taken up<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Major site for lipid digestion?<br>Small intestine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Digestion of triglycerides in small intestine<br>Pancreas secretes pancreatic lipase into the duodenum<br>Cleaces sn-1 and sn-3 fatty acids resulting in two fatty acids and a 2-monoglyceride<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Colipase function<br>Anchor point helping lipase attach to triglyceride droplet<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Phospholipase A2<br>In small intestine<br>Cleaves c-2 fatty acid of lecithin, producing lysolecithin and a free fatty acid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cholesterol Ester digestion in small intestine<br>Fatty acid cleaved by cholesterol esterase &#8211;&gt; cholesterol and a free fatty acid<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Reason for mixed micelles<br>2-monoglycerides and fatty acids from pancreatic lipase digestion forms micelles. BUT not strong water soluble enough to cross the unstirred water layer to get to the brush border.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What makes up a mixed micelle<br>Cholesterol<br>Bile Acids<br>Lysolecithin<br>2-monoglycerides<br>Fatty acids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Final prodcuts for enterocyte<br>Lipids:<br>Lysolecithin<br>2-monoglyceride<br>Fatty Acid<br>Cholesterol<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Protein:<br>Peptides<br>Amino acids<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Carbs:<br>Glucose<br>Galactose<br>Fructose<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Water<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ileocecal valve<br>Sphincter between ileum and large instestine<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Large intestine Anatomy<br>Cecum<br>Ascending column<br>Descending column<br>Sigmoid column<br>Rectum<br>Anus<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Large intestine main function<br>Absorbing remaining water and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride)<br>Form and excrete feces<br>Contain microorganisms<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Microbiota concentration in large intestine<br>The colon has the highest concentration of microbiota, with the concentration decreasing as you go up the small intestine until the stomach.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bile acid action in large intestine<br>Bile acids fermented to form secondary bile acids, approx 20% of total bile acids in body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fermentable fibers in large intestine<br>Can be used to form short chain fatty acids that can then be absorbed and use by the body<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Nonfermentable fiber in the large intestine<br>Not altered and will be a component in feces<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Prebiotic<br>Nondigestible food component that selectively stimulates growth of the beneficial bacteria<br>eg- insulin, fructo-oligosaccharides<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Probiotic<br>Live microorganisms consume<br>Increases beneficial bacteria<br>eg &#8211; DanActive, Activia<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Are pro or prebiotics better for you?<br>Both are. Have same ratio increase in beneficial bacteria<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Special quality of a pro\/prebiotic<br>Needs to be able to survive digestion<br>eg- beta bonds or oligosaccharides, resistant starch<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>1 \/ 19FNDH 400 Exam 1 &#8211; 4FNDH 400 Exam 1 2 \/ 19in the body 3 \/ 19 4 \/ 19 what digestive enzymes are released in the mouth? salivary amylase? lingual lipase lysozyme?non digestive enzyme that breaks down bacteria cell walls to prevent a possible infection peristalsis?wavelike constant movement that is caused by [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[25],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-121666","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-exams-certification"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/121666","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=121666"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/121666\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=121666"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=121666"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=121666"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}