Hypoglossal speech, manipulation of food, and swallowing
Order of nerves “””On occasion, our trusty truck acts funny\u2014very good vehicle any how”””
Intersegmental flexor\/withdrawal and crossed-extensor
autonomic nervous system receives input from sensory receptors
A preganglionic neuron has its cell body in the central nervous system and the axon extends to an autonomic ganglion; shorter
A postganglionic neuron has its unmyelinated axon extending from the ganglion (which is a structure that contains cell bodies and belongs to peripheral nervous system) to the effector; longer
Sympathetic division is also called thoracolumbar division
The sympathetic nervous system is often referred to as the fight-or-flight division
There are 2 major types of sympathetic ganglia sympathetic and prevertebral
Sympathetic trunk ganglia Lie in a vertical row on either side of the vertebral column
Prevertebral ganglia Lie anterior to the vertebral column and close to the large abdominal arteries (closer to organs (long fibers))
The parasympathetic nervous system is referred to as the rest-and-digest division
parasympathetic division is also called craniosacral division
parasympathetic division cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons are in the nuclei of four cranial nerves (III, VII, IX and X)
Neurotransmitter from sympathetic is norepinephrine (excitatory)
Neurotransmitter from parasympathetic is acetylcholine (inhibitory)
2 types of autonomic neurotransmitters cholinergic or adrenergic
Cholinergic neurons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (as well as preganglionic fibers)
Cholinergic receptors include nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors
Adrenergic neurons release norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
Nicotinic receptors releases epinephrine straight into the blood
Effect of ACh at nicotinic receptors is always stimulatory; Opens ion channels, depolarizing postsynaptic cell
Effect of ACh at muscarinic receptors Can be either inhibitory or excitatory
(Adrenergic Receptors) Two major classes that respond to NE or epinephrine Alpha (\u03b1) receptors and Beta (\u03b2) receptors
The conjunctiva lines the eyelids and covers the sclera (inner lining of eyelid)
The tarsal plate gives shape to eyelid
Describe the structure (all layers) of the nervous tissue of the retina Photoreceptor layer \u2192 outer synaptic layer \u2192 bipolar cell layer \u2192 inner synaptic layer \u2192 ganglion cell layer
Far objects lens flattens
Close objects round shaped
Myopia nearsightedness; the eyeball is longer than it should be and the image
hyperopia shorter than it should be and the image converges behind the retina
Astigmatism either the cornea or the lens (or both) has an irregular curve
Water-soluble hormones circulate freely in the plasma; amino acid\/protein base
Lipid-soluble hormones circulate bound to transport proteins; mostly steroid
The hypothalamus controls the release of hormones by the pituitary gland
Hypersecretion of GH is usually caused by anterior pituitary tumor
Only a few hormones operate via positive feedback, one is oxytocin
Follicular cells produce thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine, T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) known as thyroid hormones contain iodide ions (I-)*
Parafollicular cells produce the hormone calcitonin to help regulate calcium homeostasis
Parathyroid glands contain 2 types of cells chief cells and oxyphil
Chief cells (principal cells) produce parathyroid hormone (PTH, parathormone)
Oxyphil cells secrete excess PTH in cases of parathyroid cancer
the zone of glomerulosa mineralocorticoids; used to regulate mineral homeostasis
Aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium homeostasis
The zone of fasciculata glucocorticoid; affect glucose homeostasis
The zone of reticularis androgens (hormones with masculinizing effects)
The zone of medulla Secretes epinephrine and NE
Hypersecretion of adrenal medulla Cushing’s Syndrome\/disease- Depresses cartilage\/bone formation and immune system; inhibits inflammation; disrupts neural, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal function- Causes: tumor on pituitary, lungs, pancreas, kidney, or adrenal cortex; overuse of corticosteroids\/glucocorticoids
Hyposecretion of adrenal medulla Addison’s disease- Adrenal glands produce too little cortisol
Pancreas exocrine function Produces substances (enzymes) that help with digestion
Almost all of the exocrine cells of the pancreas are arranged in clusters called acini
Acini produce digestive enzymes
Scattered among the acini are clusters of endocrine tissue called pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), which contain secreting cells. The islets include 4 types of cells that secrete different hormones: GISPP
Alpha (A) cells glucagon
Beta (B) cells insulin
Delta (D) cells somatostatin
F cells pancreatic polypeptide
Type 1 (not enough insulin; treated with insulin injections)
Type 2 (insulin doesn’t work right)
Thymus maturation of the immune system’s T cell<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"Exam 2: BIOS 252 \/ BIOS252 (2024\/ 2025 Update) Anatomy and Physiology II Exam Review| Guide with Questions and Verified Answers| 100% Correct| Rated A – Chamberlain Exam 2: BIOS 252 \/ BIOS252 (2024\/ 2025Update) Anatomy and Physiology II ExamReview| Guide with Questions and VerifiedAnswers| 100% Correct| Rated A –ChamberlainQ: What are the 12 cranial […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[25],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-131954","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-exams-certification"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/131954","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=131954"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/131954\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=131954"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=131954"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.learnexams.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=131954"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}