CHAPTER 1 Biology: The Study of Life

Biology, 14e Sylvia Mader, Michael Windelspecht

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1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 Biology: The Study of Life

The text opens with a description of the characteristics of life, followed by a discussion of the human species’ integration into the highly-diverse biosphere. Taxonomic classification, the system by which all organisms are categorized, is discussed. The steps of the scientific method are outlined. A scientific experiment is described in detail. Section 1.4, Science and the Challenges Facing Society, includes new, topical sections on emerging diseases and ecosystems threatened with extinction.

Learning Outcomes 1.1 The Characteristics of Life

• Distinguish among the levels of biological organization.
• Identify the basic characteristics of life.

1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life

• Explain the relationship between the process of natural selection and evolutionary change.
• Distinguish among the three domains of life.

1.3 The Process of Science

• Identify the components of the scientific method.
• Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.
• Analyze a scientific experiment and identify the hypothesis, experiment, control groups, and

conclusions.

1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing Society

• Distinguish between science and technology.
• Summarize the major challenges facing science and society.

Chapter Outline 1.1 The Characteristics of Life

• Life Is Organized
• Organization of living systems begins with atoms, which combine to form small molecules.
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living things.
• Some cells are independent organisms, such as single-celled bacteria.
• Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells that work together. 2 / 4

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• Different cells combine to make up tissues (e.g., nerve tissue).
• Tissues combine to make up an organ (e.g., the brain).
• Specific organs work together as an organ system (e.g., the brain, spinal cord, etc.).
• Multicellular organisms (each an “individual” within a particular species) contain organ

systems.

• A species in a particular area (e.g., elephants and trees in Africa) constitutes a population.
• Interacting populations in a particular area comprise a community.
• A community plus its physical environment is an ecosystem.
• The biosphere is comprised of regions of the Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere

inhabited by organisms.

• Each level of organization is more complex than the level preceding it.
• Each level of organization has emergent properties due to interactions between the parts

making up the whole; all emergent properties follow the laws of physics and chemistry.

• Life Requires Materials and Energy
• Maintaining organization and conducting life-sustaining processes requires an outside

source of energy, which is defined as the capacity to do “work.”

• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
• The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the sun; plants and certain other

organisms convert solar energy into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis.

• Living Organisms Maintain Homeostasis
• All organisms must maintain a state of biological balance, or homeostasis.
• Temperature, moisture level, pH, etc., must be maintained within the tolerance range of the

organism.

• In order to maintain homeostasis, body systems monitor internal conditions and make

adjustments when needed.

• Organisms have intricate feedback and control mechanisms to maintain homeostatic

balance.

• Living Organisms Respond
• Living things interact with the environment and with other living things.
• Response often results in movement of the organism (e.g., a plant bending toward the sun

to capture solar energy, a turtle withdrawing into its shell for safety, etc.).

• Responses help ensure survival of the organism and allow the organism to carry out its

biological activities.

• The collective responses of an organism constitute the behavior of the organism.
• Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop
• Reproduction is the ability of every organism to give rise to another organism like itself.
• Bacteria, protozoans, and other unicellular organisms can reproduce asexually by splitting in

two (binary fission).

• Multicellular organisms often reproduce sexually, uniting sperm and egg, each from a

different individual, resulting in an immature individual that develops into the adult.

• The instructions for an organism’s organization and development are encoded in genes.
• Genes are comprised of long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); DNA is the genetic

code in all living things.

• Genes are passed on from generation to generation. Methods to ensure genetic variability

include random combination of sperm and egg and mutations.

• Living Organisms Have Adaptations
• Adaptations are modifications that make organisms better able to function in an

environment.

• Evolution includes the way in which populations change over the course of generations to

become more suited to their environments.

1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life

A. Evolution: The Core Concept of Biology

• Natural selection is the process by which species become modified over time. 3 / 4

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• In natural selection, members of a species may inherit a genetic change that makes them

better suited to a particular environment.

• These members would be more likely to produce higher numbers of surviving offspring.
• Organizing Diversity
• Taxonomy is the discipline of identifying and grouping organisms according to certain rules.
• Systematics is the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
• Taxonomic classification changes as more is learned about living things, including the

evolutionary relationships between species.

• From smaller (least inclusive) categories to larger (more inclusive), the sequence of

classification categories are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, supergroup and domain.

• The species within one genus share many specific characteristics and are the most closely

related, while species in the same kingdom share only general characteristics with one another.

• Biochemical evidence suggests there are three domains: domain Bacteria, domain Archaea,

and domain Eukarya.

• The domains Bacteria and Archaea contain prokaryotes; organisms in the domain Eukarya

are eukaryotes that have a membrane-bound nucleus.

• The prokaryotes are structurally simple but are metabolically complex.
• Archaea can live in water devoid of oxygen, and are able to survive harsh environmental

conditions (temperatures, salinity, pH).

• Bacteria are adapted to live almost anywhere (water, soil, atmosphere, in/on the human

body, etc.).

• The domains Archaea and Bacteria are not yet categorized into kingdoms.

12. Eukarya contains four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

• Protists (kingdom Protista) range from single-celled forms to multicellular forms.
• Plants (kingdom Plantae) are multicellular photosynthetic organisms.
• Fungi (kingdom Fungi) are the molds and mushrooms.
• Animals (kingdom Animalia) are multicellular organisms that ingest and process their food.
• Supergroup has been developed to explain evolutionary relationships. There are currently

six supergroups for domain Eukarya.

• Binomial nomenclature refers to a two-part scientific name: the genus (first word,

capitalized) and the specific epithet of a species (second word, not capitalized).

• Scientific names are based on Latin and are used universally by biologists.

1.3 The Process of Science

• Biology is the scientific study of life, and it consists of many disciplines.
• The scientific process differs from other ways of learning in that science follows the scientific

method, which is characterized by observation, development of a hypothesis, experimentation and data collection, and forming a conclusion.

• Observation
• Scientists believe nature is orderly and measurable, and that natural laws (e.g., gravity) do

not change with time.

• Natural events, called phenomena, can therefore be understood from observation.
• Scientists also use the knowledge and experiences of other scientists to expand their

understanding of phenomena.

• Hypothesis
• Inductive reasoning allows a person to combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole.
• Alexander Fleming reasoned that the mold Penicillium produces an antibacterial compound

based on his observation of a bacteria-free area associated with a mold-contaminated area of his petri dish.

• A scientist uses inductive reasoning to develop a possible explanation (a hypothesis) for a

natural event; the scientist presents the hypothesis as an actual statement.

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