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Review 1.1 In your own words, what are two differences between product testing and material testing?

Possible answers include: (a) The goal of the two procedures is different. Whereas product testing is design to determine the lifetime of a component under conditions that mimic real- world use, material testing is intended to extract fundamental material properties that are independent of the material’s use. (b) The specimen shape is different. Product testing must use the material in the shape in which it will be used in the real product. Material testing uses idealized specimen shapes designed to unambiguously determine one or more properties of the material with the simplest analysis possible.

1.2 What are the distinguishing differences between elasticity, plasticity, and fracture?

Elasticity involves only deformation that is fully reversible when the applied load is removed (even if it takes time to occur). Plasticity is permanent shape change without cracking, even when no load exists. Fracture inherently involves breaking of bonds and the creation of new surfaces. Often two or more of these processes take place simultaneously, but the contribution of each can be separated from the others.

1.3 Write the definitions for engineering stress, true stress, engineering strain, and true strain for loading along a single axis.

 eng =engineering stress= load initial cross-sectional area = P A

(1-1a)  true =true stress= load instantaneous cross-sectional area = P A i (1-2a)  eng =engineering strain= change in length initial length = l f −l

l

(1-1b)  true =true strain=ln final length initiallength =ln l f l

(1-2b)

1.4 Under what conditions is Eq. 1-4 valid? What makes it no longer useful if those conditions are not met?

(Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials 5e Richard Hertzberg, Richard Vinci, Jason Hertzberg) (Solution Manual all Chapters) 1 / 4

Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 5 th ed. Problem Solutions p. 2/162 Draft document, Copyright R. Hertzberg, R. Vinci, J. Hertzberg 2009

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. true = P A

(l i /l

)= eng (l i /l

)= eng

(1+

eng ) (1-4) This expression is true when volume is conserved. However, it is only useful if the cross- sectional area is the same everyone on the test specimen. If this isn’t the case then the stress and strain will vary from one part of the specimen to another.

1.5 Sketch Figure 1.3, curve ‘b’ (a ductile metal). Label it with the following terms, indicating from which location on the curve each quantity can be identified or extracted: elastic region, elastic-plastic region, proportional limit, tensile strength, onset of necking, fracture stress. strain stress fracture stress elastic region elastic-plastic region proportional limit tensile strength onset of necking

1.6 On a single set of axes, sketch approximate atomic force vs. atom-separation curves like the one shown in Fig. 1.4b for tungsten at temperatures of 200, 600, and 1000 K. Pay close attention to the point x0 and the slope dF/dx for each of the curves you draw.The key features of the plot are the increasing x0 spacing with increasing temperature (i.e., with thermal expansion) and the decreasing slope associated with decreased elastic modulus.The plot is exaggerated but the trends are reasonable. F x x

0 (1000 K)

x

0 (600 K)

x

0 (200 K)

dF dx 200 K 600 K

1000 K

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Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.

1.7 State the critical difference in the processing behavior of thermoplastics vs. thermosets.

Thermoplastics can be melted and resolidified multiple times, so processing often involves several heating, forming, and cooling steps. Thermosets harden by a one-time chemical reaction so there cannot be any additional forming operations after the cross-linking operation takes place.

1.8 What happens to the stiffness of a polymer as the temperature Tg is exceeded? For what group of polymers is this change the greatest? The smallest?

The stiffness of a polymer decreases above the glass transition temperature, sometimes dramatically. The effect is the largest for amorphous, uncross-linked polymers. It is the smallest for highly cross-linked polymers (such as certain epoxies).

1.9 Write typical values of E for diamond, steel, aluminum, silicate glass, polystyrene, and silicone rubber subjected to small strains (note that the latter value is not included in this chapter, but is widely available). Clearly indicate the units for each value.

The following values are not intended to represent any particular processing method or alloy composition; they are rounded average values for certain material families.Diamond ~ 1000 GPa Steel ~ 200 GPa Aluminum ~ 70 GPa Silicate glass ~ 70 GPa Polystyrene ~ 3 GPa Silicone rubber ~ 10 MPa (0.010 GPa)

1.10 What is the purpose of a plasticizer, and what specific effect on room temperature behavior is likely when a plasticizer is added?

A plasticizer is added to a polymer to break up the molecular interactions, allowing more chain mobility than would otherwise be possible for that particular polymer at the temperature of interest. At room temperature, therefore, the polymer is more likely to have a low elastic modulus (i.e., a ordinarily-hard polymer may become flexible).

1.11 Identify a minimum of two structural characteristics and two mechanical characteristics that set elastomers apart from other classes of materials (including other polymers).

Elastomers are amorphous and moderately cross-linked. They tend to display significant changes in stiffness as their use temperate exceeds Tg, but they do not melt at even higher temperature.

1.12 Define what is meant by uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial loading.

Uniaxial loading occurs along a single direction, biaxial along two directions, and triaxial along three. Note that there may be multiaxial strains even when the loading is restricted to one or two directions.

1.13 State one advantage and disadvantage of compression testing.

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Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 5 th ed. Problem Solutions p. 4/162 Draft document, Copyright R. Hertzberg, R. Vinci, J. Hertzberg 2009

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.An advantage may be to avoid failure due to tensile cracking at low loads (as in the case for ceramics and glasses), and therefore to allow exploration of degrees of plasticity impossible to achieve under tensile loading. One disadvantage would be the difficulty in achieving ideal friction-free conditions between the specimen and the loading platen.

1.14 Is buckling failure initiated by an elastic, plastic, or cracking process? Explain.

Buckling failure is initially an elastic process in which the member deflects in a direction perpendicular to the loading axis. This failure may then be followed by plasticity or fracture, but these processes are not inherent in buckling.

1.15 What is the difference between the resilience and the strain energy density of a material under load? Illustrate your answer by reproducing Figure 1.3, curve ‘b’ (a ductile metal), and annotating it appropriately.

Resilience is a measure of the maximum elastic strain energy stored in the material before the onset of plasticity. The strain energy density is a more general term that is a measure of the stored elastic energy at any point during a mechanical test. It may be greater or less than the resilience, depending on the hardening or softening behavior that takes place after plastic deformation begins. strain stress strain energy density at the point of necking resilience

1.16 Sketch Figure 1.3, curve ‘b’ (a ductile metal) and show on the figure the difference between the proportional limit and the offset yield strength.

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