materialism, but which branch of modern-day psychology explicitly uses this approach in its study of the mind?

Name: Class: Date: Chapter 1 - Essay Page 1 1.Describe philosophical dualism and philosophical materialism. Most modern-day psychologists embrace materialism, but which branch of modern-day psychology explicitly uses this approach in its study of the mind?ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Philosophical dualism is the view that the mind and body are fundamentally different things. (2) Philosophical materialism is the view that all mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena. (3) In their work, cognitive neuroscientists study the relationship between the brain and the mind. Because cognitive neuroscientists assume that the brain and the mind are related, they use a materialist approach.

2.Contrast the views of Locke's realism with Kant's idealism. What position do modern psychologists take on this issue?ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Locke argued that perceptions of the physical world are produced entirely by information from the sensory organs. (2) Kant argued that perceptions of the world involve both information from the sensory organs and the brain's interpretations of that information. (3) Modern psychologists agree that our perception of the world is an inference of our brain's best guess at what is there.

3.Differentiate between a structuralist and a functionalist approach to understanding consciousness. Identify the founders of both approaches and the earlier influences that gave rise to these schools of psychology.ANSWER: The answer should indicate that Wilhelm Wundt began structuralism and was greatly influenced by the physiological research of Helmholtz, for whom he was a research assistant. Structuralism attempts to identify the basic elements that constitute the mind by deconstructing the conscious experience through techniques such as introspection. William James began functionalism. He did not believe that consciousness can be broken down into basic elements; rather, he believed consciousness was more like a flowing stream than a collection of components. Functionalism sought to identify the adaptive significance, or functions, of consciousness, rather than deconstructing it into elements. James was highly influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection.

4.Discuss Sigmund Freud's influence on the field of psychology in the 20th century. What are the contributions of Freud's psychoanalytic theory?ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Though many people disagree with Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, he is one of the most influential psychologists ever. (2) Freud had been educated as a physician and noticed that patients were coming into his office with problems that had no physical justification. Freud decided to talk with these patients about their psychosomatic symptoms, which were termed hysteria in Freud's day. Over time, he developed a therapy called psychoanalysis. (3) Freud developed a theory of how the mind works and how people may be governed by forces of which they are unaware. This idea of an unconscious has had a tremendous impact on psychology, literature, and art. It also formed the basis of psychoanalysis, which involves bringing unconscious motivations, desires, and thoughts into the conscious mind.

5.Why would John Watson disagree with the definition of psychology as stated in the textbook?ANSWER: The answer should indicate that psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. John Watson was the founder of behaviorism. He believed that mental processes could not be studied scientifically because they were not objectively observable. He believed that if psychology was to be a science, it should confine its subject matter to objectively observable behavior. For this reason, Watson would disagree with the definition of psychology as presented in Introducing Psychology, 6e Daniel Schacter, Daniel Gilbert, Daniel Wegner, Matthew Nock (Test Bank All Chapters, 100% Original Verified, A+ Grade)

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Name: Class: Date: Chapter 1 - Essay Page 2 the textbook. In fairness to Watson, however, he lived before modern brain-scanning devices allowed psychologists to make objective observations of the neurological processes underlying cognition.

6.Compare and contrast Freud's and Skinner's ideas about the forces that control behavior.ANSWER: Freud believed that behavior was controlled by the unconscious, or the part of the mind that contains information of which people are not aware. Freud thought that you needed to understand the contents of the unconscious to understand the person, so he used free association and dream analysis to study the unconscious. Skinner believed that consequences control behavior. His principle of reinforcement stated that any behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn't rewarded won't. Both Freud and Skinner believed that humans do not have free will over their behavior. Both Freud's and Skinner's ideas contributed not only to the field of psychology but also beyond psychology.

7.Describe Skinner's ideas about the forces that control behavior. What would contribute to one's behavior related to studying, according to Skinner?ANSWER: Skinner believed that consequences control behavior. His principle of reinforcement stated that any behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn't rewarded won't. Therefore, when students study hard, they may be rewarded with good grades and approval from teachers, parents, and peers. These students' studying behaviors will be reinforced and are more likely to occur in the future.

8.Discuss some benefits that behaviorism brought to the field of psychology. Then discuss some problems associated with behaviorism.ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Behaviorists highlighted the need for psychologists to study phenomena that were objectively observable. This advanced the science of psychology. (2) The research of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson demonstrated how associations between stimuli and responses are formed. (3) Using rats, B. F. Skinner developed a methodology demonstrating that the consequences of behavior determine its future occurrence. This work has taught psychologists how people, not just rats, learn. His principle of reinforcement pervades modern psychology. (4) By focusing their study only on observable behavior, however, behaviorists neglected important areas of study such as perception, memory, cognitive and brain processes, and language. As a result, most psychologists ultimately shifted away from the behaviorist approach.

9.Humans tend to be afraid of the dark. Provide an explanation of this phenomenon within the framework of both behaviorism and evolutionary psychology. Are the two explanations necessarily incompatible?ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Humans tend not to see well at night. As such, we are prone to accidents when navigating in the dark. In addition, we are at a disadvantage if surrounded by large nocturnal animals that could possibly harm us. In contrast, hunkering down and sleeping in small groups at night provides some measure of safety. (2) Behaviorists would focus on the learning that occurs within an individual's lifetime. For example, the last time Bob went hunting at night, he broke his ankle and almost got eaten by a lion. Hunting at night, then, has been punished by its consequences. Conversely, seeking a safe shelter is reinforced with warmth, safety, and companionship. As a result of these learning experiences, Bob fears the dark and would rather stay inside. (3) Evolutionary psychologists would note that during the course of mammalian evolution, our ancestors who ventured outside in the dark tended not to reproduce in great numbers, perhaps

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because they fell off cliffs or got eaten by crocodiles. Those ancestors, who just so happened to be leery of the dark, lived to pass on their genes. Thus, we are left with the genes of those who did not particularly enjoy nightly jaunts through the forest. (4) On the surface, the two explanations are very different. While behaviorists do not deny the role of genetics, they point to reinforcement as the major determinant of behavior. As such, a behaviorist would first seek to understand the learning experiences that shaped an individual's fear of the dark. On the other hand, an evolutionary psychologist will focus on differential reproductive success as a result of the behavior of our ancestors. We are left with their genes, and thus, their behavior patterns. (5) The two explanations are not incompatible, but rather represent different levels of analysis. For example, early mammals might learn to avoid the dark through natural consequences within their lifetime. Principles of reinforcement and punishment from a behavioral account would explain this behavior. These are the mammals that live to reproduce and pass on their genes. To the extent that susceptibility to reinforcement is, in part, genetically based, we are genetically predisposed to fear the dark due to the learning experiences of our remote ancestors.

• Discuss how technological advancements, along with work in the field of linguistics, advanced cognitive

psychology and ultimately led to the downfall of behaviorism as the dominant field within psychology.ANSWER: The answer should indicate that the advent of the computer gave psychologists a useful model of mental processes. For example, both computers and people seem to register, store, and retrieve information. This computer model inspired much research in the field of cognitive psychology. This growing field of cognitive psychology studied important processes that behaviorists largely ignored, such as perception, memory, and attention, and ultimately supplanted behaviorism as the dominant theoretical position within psychology. Contributing to the downfall of behaviorism was Noam Chomsky's scathing review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Skinner believed that language (he called it verbal behavior) was essentially the product of reinforcement. For example, if saying please is reinforced, that person may become politer. Chomsky charged that Skinner's theory of language was overly simplistic. Children use grammar rules that are not explicitly taught and generate novel phrases that were never explicitly reinforced.

• A team of psychologists is working on a project to learn more about consumption of sweet foods. The team

includes a cultural psychologist, a behavioral neuroscientist, a social psychologist, and a developmental psychologist. First, describe the type of work each team member engages in. Then write one research question that each would be interested to answer.ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Developmental psychologists study the ways psychological phenomena change over the life span. The developmental psychologist may be interested in asking "Does consumption of sweet foods change as people age?" (2) Social psychologists study the causes and consequences of sociality. The social psychologist might ask, "Does consumption of sweet foods change when the social environment changes?" (3) Behavioral neuroscientists study the relationship between brain and behavior, and therefore might ask, "How does the brain change as a result of consumption of sweet foods?" (4) Cultural psychology is the study of how culture influences mental life. The cultural psychologist may be interested in studying how culture impacts preferences for sweets or the amount of sweet consumption.

• How might an evolutionary psychologist explain human behavior that is largely detrimental to the

individual or the culture, such as aggression or a preference for a high-fat diet?ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Evolutionary psychologists believe that

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human behavior is the product of millions of years of natural selection. Although these behaviors are largely detrimental today, they were adaptive in the environment of our ancestors. (2) Our ancestors who aggressively procured food and sexual partners tended to be the ones who lived and passed on their genes. (3) In an ancestral environment where food was scarce, those ancestors who had a preference for high-fat foods obtained the calories that they needed to survive. (4) In today's environment where food is abundant and behaving aggressively can send one to prison, these behaviors are largely detrimental. But we are stuck with the genes of our ancestors. To the extent that these behaviors are, in part, biologically determined, we will continue to have a propensity to engage in these behaviors.

• Discuss the growing impact of women and people of color on the field of psychology, and identify some

pioneering women and people of color within psychology.ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Today, women and people of color play leading roles in all areas of psychology. (2) Kenneth Clark, a Black person who became the first president of the American Psychological Association in 1970, and Mamie Phipps Clark worked extensively on the self-image of Black children and argued that segregation of the races created great psychological harm. Their research was fundamental and contributed to the Supreme Court's 1954 ruling (Brown v. Board of Education) to outlaw segregation in public schools. Kenneth Clark's interest in psychology was sparked by taking a course taught by Francis Cecil Sumner, the first Black person to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. (3) In 1894, Margaret Floy Washburn became the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology. (4) Mary Whiton Calkins, the first woman elected as president of the APA in 1905, was mentored by William James but was denied a PhD by Harvard because she was a woman. (5) Women now earn the majority (about 70%) of PhD degrees granted in psychology. In addition, people of color earn approximately 30% of the PhDs granted in psychology.

• Describe four non-research career specializations within psychology.

ANSWER: The answer should provide four of the following points: (1) Clinical psychologists (also called therapists) assess and treat people with psychological disorders. They work closely with psychiatrists, who have a medical degree and can prescribe medication. (2) Counseling psychologists assist people dealing with career issues or common personal problems such as divorce, unemployment, or the loss of a loved one. (3) School psychologists work in educational settings and provide guidance to students, parents, and teachers. (4) Industrial/organizational psychologists work in business and industry, and focus on issues such as improving productivity, developing effective planning strategies, and dealing with change. (5) Sports psychologists help athletes train and compete. (6) Forensic psychologists assist attorneys and courts in dealing with crime. (7) Consumer psychologists help companies develop and market new products.

• Describe three types of mental health professionals who may work in a private practice. What type of degree

would each have?ANSWER: The answer should provide three of the following points: (1) Psychiatrists, who have earned an MD, assess and may prescribe medications for patients. (2) Clinical psychologists (also called therapists) assess and treat people with psychological disorders. (3) Counseling psychologists (or counselors) may have earned a master's level degree. (4) Psychologists with a PsyD or a MEd degree may also provide therapy in a private practice setting.

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