Test Bank for The Making of the West Volume 2 7e

Test Bank for The Making of the West (Volume 2) 7e Lynn Hunt, Thomas Martin, Barbara Rosenwein, Bonnie Smith (All Chapters Download link at the end of this File)

Chapter 14

• What was the conflict in the 1490s between Portugal and Spain, and how was it settled?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Portuguese and Spanish interests began to clash in the 1490s because both Portugal and Spain were engaged in extensive overseas exploration. After the voyages of Columbus, Pope Alexander VI mediated the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, a pact that divided the Atlantic world along an imaginary demarcation line; everything east of that line—most important, the West African coast and the route to India—was reserved for Portugal, while all lands and oceans to the west of the line were assigned to Spain. Brazil was still unknown to Europeans at that time, and Portugal went on to claim it in 1500.

• Describe the new era of slavery up to the early sixteenth century.

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Slavery had existed since antiquity—captives of war and piracy were enslaved, and slave traders sold Africans to Christians. In the Middle East, slaves served as soldiers, and desperate, impoverished parents sometimes sold their children into slavery.In European cities of the Mediterranean, most slaves were used for domestic work, while others worked as galley slaves. After the Portuguese explorations in Africa, slavery increased vastly.African slaves were used in agriculture, especially sugar production, on the Atlantic islands and in Brazil.

• What was the Columbian exchange, and what consequences did it have for Europe, Africa, and the

Americas?ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. The Columbian exchange was the movement of plants, animals, goods, metals, pathogens, and people between Europe, Africa and the Americas. It began with Columbus, who brought firearms, horses, pigs, cows, chickens, goats, sheep, cattle, wheat, melons, and sugarcane to the Americas; on his second voyage, he brought slaves from the Caribbean back with him to Spain. The Europeans brought infectious diseases, including smallpox, to the New World, and they brought back syphilis to Europe. The Spanish brought back tobacco, cacao, sweet potatoes, corn, and tomatoes to Europe; slave traders brought these items to West Africa. African yams, millet, and rice were brought from Africa to the New World. The Columbian exchange fundamentally changed eating and dietary patterns on three continents. It also led to the deaths of vast portions of the indigenous population in the Americas, mostly through infectious diseases, to which it had no immunity. And it uprooted entire African populations, bringing them over to the New World as slaves.

• Who was Desiderius Erasmus, and what ideas did he put forward in The Praise of Folly (1509)?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Desiderius Erasmus was one of the most famous Christian humanists of his age. The illegitimate son of a man who became a priest, Erasmus entered the priesthood and, like Luther, joined an Augustinian order. In works like The Praise of Folly, he argued that learning and simple piety could help fight off the forces of ignorance. The Praise of Folly, however, is a work of satire. In it, Erasmus argued that the so-called Christian world worshipped those who were pompous, powerful, and wealthy instead of honoring the true Christian virtues of modesty, humility, and poverty. In this state of affairs, the wise appeared foolish because 1 / 3

their wisdom and values were not of this world.

• Who were the Evangelicals, what social groups did they represent, and why were they important to the spread

of Martin Luther's reform movement?ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. The Evangelicals were a group of Martin Luther's earliest supporters drawn mainly from younger humanists and clerics who shared Luther's critical attitude toward the church establishment. Most of them came from middle-class backgrounds and were university educated. The Evangelicals were important to Martin Luther's reform movement because they came from and represented social groups most ready to challenge clerical authority— literate urban laypeople, merchants, and artisans.

• Who proposed the doctrine known as predestination, and what is the belief represented by this term?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. John Calvin developed the doctrine of predestination.Basically, predestination means that, even before the creation of the world, God had ordained the salvation or damnation of every person who would ever live. The “elect” who would be saved were known only to God, but the certainty that some would be saved, even if no one knew who those elect would be, nevertheless gave Calvinists the conviction to adopt a strict moral code of behavior in the uncertain world of early-sixteenth-century Europe.

• How did Protestantism become established in England?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Though Henry VIII initially persecuted Protestants, he severed ties between the English church and Rome because of the refusal of Pope Clement VII to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared Henry to be the head of the Church of England. Henry's own views on religion were ambiguous. He considered himself Catholic but refused to accept the supremacy of the pope; he retained the Mass but closed the monasteries. His son, Edward VI, continued the move toward Protestantism and invited in religious refugees, mostly Calvinists, from the continent. Edward was succeeded, however, by his Catholic half-sister, Mary Tudor, who was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon.Mary restored Catholicism and had close to three hundred Protestants burned at the stake. Ruling for only five years, she was succeeded by Anne Boleyn's daughter, Elizabeth. Elizabeth established a religious settlement under which Protestantism again defined the nation but Roman Catholics were tolerated as long as they kept a low profile.

• How did the approach of missionaries in the Americas differ from that of missionaries in China and Japan?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Missionaries came to the Americas in the wake of conquistadors, and they viewed the natives as “treacherous” peoples who had to be treated harshly to ensure that they truly converted. In China and Japan, however, missionaries were not accompanied by military forces, and they admired the Asian civilizations. As a result, missionaries in the Far East chose to use persuasion (in the form of sermons) rather than force to encourage conversion to Christianity.

• What was the Peace of Augsburg, and to what extent did it succeed in quelling religious conflict in Europe?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. The Peace of Augsburg was a religious settlement from 1555 in the Holy Roman Empire. It recognized the Lutheran church but held that non-Lutheran territories were to remain Catholic. More importantly, it laid out the principle that local rulers had the right to determine the faith of their subjects and lands. While the Peace of Augsburg temporarily settled the religious conflicts raging in Central Europe, it did not do so over the long term. It excluded Calvinists and Anabaptists from the settlement, the groups often regarded as the most radical. The Peace of Augsburg would break down in 1618 at the start of the Thirty Years’ War.

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• How did changes in military technology place a growing financial burden on monarchs?

ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. As sixteenth-century armies grew in size, they became more costly not only because of the additional pay required but also because the soldiers had to be armed with the new gunpowder weaponry. Heavy artillery was expensive for both attackers and defenders; cannons cost a lot, and to protect against them, new fortifications were necessary.Monarchs began to borrow money from financiers to pay for their military expansion, but enterprises such as the Fugger bank charged substantial fees in addition to extracting numerous mining and minting concessions. To try to get out of debt or merely to pay the interest on their loans, monarchs often undertook new wars or increased taxes. Either course of action could be costly and could actually mire the monarchy in even more debt—the army needed more men and supplies, while increased taxes could spark revolts that were costly to put down.

• What were some of the causes of the European voyages of exploration of the late fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries? What impact did these voyages have on both the peoples that were conquered and the societies back home?ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Ever since the Ottoman conquest of the southern and eastern regions of the Mediterranean, the Europeans had become determined to find alternative routes to China and India, the center of the valuable spice trade. They also were driven by their desire to use the potential gold and riches in future crusades against the Islamic world. In the fifteenth century, the Portuguese took the initiative by gradually sailing around Africa, exploring the West African coast in particular and establishing forts as they went. The Spanish enlisted Christopher Columbus, who hoped to reach China and India by sailing west. Columbus, a native Italian, shared the same goals as the Spanish: find gold, claim territory, subjugate Indians, and spread Christianity. The European voyages of discovery had a devastating impact on the native peoples of Africa and the Americas. Columbus proposed setting up a slave trade involving the Caribs. Other European conquerors treated native Americans with extreme brutality, particularly after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. So many native Americans died (mostly from disease) that the Europeans chose to import African slaves, who, it was argued, were more suitable for labor than native Americans. The Europeans brought horses, pigs, cows, chickens, goats, sheep, cattle, wheat, melons, sugar, enslaved Africans, and diseases to the New World. They brought back with them syphilis (or a genetic predecessor), tobacco, sweet potatoes, maize, tomato seeds, and chocolate. They also brought capsicum peppers, pineapples, cashew nuts, and peanuts to West Africa. The vast amounts of gold and precious metals enriched their states but also led to significant inflation and prompted leaders to undertake ruinous wars against their European neighbors.

• Why did Martin Luther break with the church and usher in the Protestant Reformation? In your response,

please discuss the stages in Luther's journey away from the church.ANSWER: Answer would ideally include the following. Luther, the son of a miner, initially went to university to study law but entered an Augustinian order instead. There he experienced a religious crisis: despite all of his prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and religious study, he did not feel saved. He overcame this crisis of faith only when he became convinced that sinners were saved only through faith, and that faith was a gift freely given by God. Luther asserted that no amount of good works could produce the faith necessary for salvation. At the same time that Luther was overcoming this spiritual crisis, he was outraged by the arrival of a priest named Johann Tetzel, who came to Wittenberg to sell indulgences, certificates that promised a reduction of the time to be spent in purgatory.Indulgences, Luther argued, were not only useless for obtaining salvation but also evidence of religious corruption. In response, Luther penned his ninety-five theses, many of which centered on

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